UNDERSTANDING BOTANICAL NAMES OF PLANTS

 

Kerria japonica 

Names are important for

the identity of things. We

recognize each other

through our names. All

the plants have their

botanical (scientic)

names, but only a few of

them have their common

names. Common names

are easy to memorize as

they are in our own

l a n g u a g e s a n d a r e

mostly related to their

uses or peculiarities.

However, the common

names are not universal

and vary from person to person, region to region, and country to country. Any one of us can give

common names to plants for our convenience. Each plant can have several different common

names. For example, Datura stramonium (dhatura or devil's apple) has over 25 common names

in Sanskrit only, besides thousands of other names in other languages. The same common name

may refer to several distinct species. On the other hand, the scientic names are unique, based

on nomenclatural rules, and accepted worldwide. No second plant in the world can have the

same scientic name according to the rules. The rules for the botanical nomenclature of the

plants are laid down in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants [ICN;

previously International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)].

The scientic name of each plant is made up of two parts, a generic (or genus) epithet or name

and a specic (or species) epithet. Together, these two parts of a name are referred to as a

binomial. Two parts of a binomial are descriptive in nature and tell many things about that plant in

the name itself. A generic name is a 'collective name' for a group of plants with similar characters.

The specic name usually species certain characteristics of the plant, the place where the plant

is native, or the name of a person. The botanical names are always written with the generic name

rst, starting with a capital letter. The specic epithet always follows the generic name, starting

with a lower-case letter even when derived from a proper noun such as the name of a person or

place. The scientic name is always followed by the name of a person, who discovered and

named that plant (known as authority). The botanical names are italicized when typed or

underlined when written with hand (they were underlined when typed with a typewriter machine

earlier). Generic and specic names are in Latin or are Latinized words from other languages

(mostly from Greek). The adoption of Latin has some advantages as well as it is a dead language

and not prone to changes like English. Secondly, Latin is specic and exact in meaning and the

grammatical sense of the words is easily perceivable.

Let's take an example of a very beautiful plant Calliandra haematocephala Hassk. for

understanding botanical names. Literally, Calliandra is made up of two Greek words, Kallos

(=beautiful) and andra (= male part of a ower or stamen), meaning a plant with beautiful

stamens. Similarly, the specic epithet haematocephala is also a combination of two Greek

words, haima (= blood red) and kephale (= head or front), meaning thereby, plant with blood-red

head or front. In this name,

Hassk. is an abbreviated form

of the name of Justus Carl

H a s s k a r l ( 1 8 11 - 1 8 9 4 ) .

Authority is generally ignored

in non-scientic writings. This

plant is known by many

common names in different

parts of the world, such as red

powder-puff, powder-puff

bush, blood-red tassel ower,

calliandra, pompon, bellota,

zhu ying hua, etc.

Botanical names such as

Putranjiva roxburghii (Putrjia

or children's life tree; derived

from the Indian name of a

plant Putrjiva and father of

Indian botany Roxburgh),

Shivparvatia ciliolata (derived

from the names of Hindu God

Shiva and the Goddess

Parvati of the Himalaya),

Mangifera indica (Mango;

derived from mango bearing

plant and India), Abutilon

indicum (Indian mallow;

derived from the Arabic word for a mallow-like plant and India), Indigofera himachalensis (derived

from blue and Himachal), Festuca simlensis (specic name derived from Shimla), Nepeta

hindostana (named after Latin

w o r d f o r c a t n i p a n d

Hindustan), Canna indica

(derived from a Greek name

for a type of reed and India)

and many other plants have

Indianness in their names.

Burans or tree rhododendron

(Rhododendron arboretum), a

common tree in the Himalayan

hills, has acquired its scientic

name from its rose-coloured

owers and tree-like habit. 

The

scientic names of plants look complicated, ugly, and boring to all including the students of

botany. However, when we start going into the meanings of those names (can be checked in

dictionaries of plant names or in Botanary at Dave's Garden), they become easy and interesting.

The meanings of some common botanical names (compiled from Dictionaries of Plant Names) are

listed in the following table.

Colors of

Flowers/Foliage

Gagea lutea

• alba, albus - white
• aurantiaca - orange
• aureus - golden
• caerulea - blue
• candidus - pure white, shiny
• citrinus - yellow
• coccineus - scarlet
• discolor - two or separate
• colors
• flava, flavum - yellow
• glaucus - covered with
• gray bloom
• incana - gray, hoary
• lutea, luteus - reddish
• yellow
• nigra - black
• purpurea, purpureus -
• purple
• rosea - rose-colored
• rubra, rubrum - red
• sanguinea - blood-red
• viridis – green

Plant Shape

• arborescens - treelike
• elegans - elegant,
• slender, willowy
• erecta - upright, erect
• fruticosa - shrublike
• grandi - big
• humilis - low-growing
• pendula -drooping,
• pendulous
• prostrata, procumbens -
• prostrate
• pumilia - low-growing,
• dwarf

Plant Smell, Taste

• amara, amarus - bitter
• dulce - sweet
• foetida - foul smelling
• fragrans - fragrant
• moschata - musk odor
• odorata – scented

Leaf Form

• acerifolius - maplelike
• leaves
• lanceolata - lance-shaped
• longifolia - long-leaved
• macrophylla - largeleaved
• microphylla - smallleaved
• parvifolia, parvifolius -
• small-leaved
• palmatum - hand-shaped
• leaves
• rotundifolia - roundleaved
• salicifolius - willowlike
• leaves

Origin of Species

• alpina - alpine regions
• americana- from America
• australis - southern
• borealis - northern
• campestris - of the field
• or plains
• canadensis - from Canada
• chinensis - from China
• indica, indicus - from
• India
• insularis - of the island
• japonica, japonicum -
• from Japan
• maritima - from near the
• sea
• mexicana- from Mexico
• montana - from the
• mountains
• palustris - from marshes
• or wetlands
• saxatilis - inhabiting rocks
• 
  

Plant Peculiarities

• acaulis - stemless
• communis - common
• cordata - heart-shaped
• crispa - finely waved,
• curled
• florida, floridus -flowering
• gracilis - graceful
• grandiflora - largeflowered
• hybridus - hybrid
• incana - gray-haired
• lactea - milky
• laevis - smooth
• maculata - spotted
• majus - larger
• maxima - largest
• minor, minus - smaller
• mollis - soft and/or hairy
• multiflora - manyflowered
• nitida, nitidum - shining
• officinalis - used as
• perenne, perennis -
• perennial
• pictum - painted
• pulchella - pretty
• punctata - spotted

• repens, reptans -
• creeping
• scandens - climbing
• semperflorens -
• everblooming
• sempervirens - evergreen
• speciosa - showy
• spectabilis - spectacular
• spinarum - spiniest
• spinosus - spiny
• tomentosa, tomentosum -
• hairy
• umbellata - having
• flowers in umbels
• variegata - variegated
• villosa, villosum - softly
• hairy
• vulgaris - common

NEEM: From Village Pharmacy to Scientifically Validated Medicine

Our traditional healing practices are deeply rooted in rural communities, where natural resources like plants and minerals and associated indigenous knowledge, formed the core of healthcare systems. These medicinal resources provided important leads to the development of many scientifically validated medicines after rigorous experimental scrutiny in the 19th and 20th centuries. Over 25% of modern drugs are derived from plants or their derivatives or even inspired by nature. Many of the plant-derived modern medicines are still part of the healthcare system in the world. Paclitaxel (tetracyclic diterpenoid from Taxus brevifolia and other Taxus spp.) for various cancers, Artemisinin (sequiterpene lactone from Artemisia annua) for malaria, quinine (alkaloid from Cinchona spp.) for malaria, Digitoxin (cardiac glycoside from Digitalis spp.) for congestive heart failure, Morphine and Codeine (opioid alkaloid from Papaver somniferum) for pain-relieving effect and antitussive properties, Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid from Salix spp.) for anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving and antipyretic properties, Colchicine (colchicinic acid from Colchicum autumnale) for antitumor, gout and myocardial infarction, Vinblastine and Vincristine (alkaloids from Catharanthus roseus) as anticancer agents, Bromelain (proteolytic enzyme from Ananas comosus) for anti-inflammatory proprties, Rutin/Rutoside/Sophorin (flavonoid glycoside found Citrus and others members of Rutaceae and some other families) for oedema, endothelial dysfunction and pain relief, and Borneol (terpene derivative from Artemisia spp., Rosmarinus officinalis and others) for treatment of diabetic retinopathy and angina pectoris are some of the common examples of plant derived healing phytochemicals.

Neem, revered for centuries in traditional medicinal systems, is part of the rural healing practices and is often referred to as the “Village Pharmacy” due to its extensive therapeutic applications. Scientifically known as Azadirachta indica, is an evergreen or semi-evergreen tree from the mahogany family (Meliaceae). Neem is not just connected with the healing practices but is also intimately associated with ecological protection and sacred traditions, giving it a title “Miracle Tree.”

NAMES IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES

English: Indian lilac, Margosa tree Hindi: Neem, Nim, Arisht, Paribhadra Punjabi: Nimm Pahari: Neem Sanskrit: Arishta, Chhardighna, Cirnaparna, Dhamana, Jyeshthamalaka, Kakaphala, Nibandha, Nimba, Pakvakrt, Panduraga, Paribhadra, Pichumarda, Pitasaraka, Prabhadra, Puyari, Rajabhadraka, Sarvatobhadra, Shukapriya, Subhadra, Varatikta, Varatvaca, Vishirnaparna, Yavaneshta Assamese: Nim Bengali: Nim Gujarati: Limdo Kannada: Bevu, Nimba Kashmiri: Nyombu Konkani: Kodbevu Malayalam: Aryavepp Marathi: Kadulimba, Khatanimba Odia: Nim Pali: Nimba, Panna, Puchimanda Persian: Azad-Darakht-e-Hind (the free tree of India) Tamil: Akaluti, Aricu, Arittam, Aruluruti, Arunati, Atipam, Cava-Muli, Cirina-Pannam, Kacappi, Kati-P-Pakai, Keca-Mutti, Kinci, Kotaravali, Nalatampu, Nimpam, Niyacam, Picacappiriyam, Picitam, Picumantam, Pumari, Puyari, Ukkira-Kantam, Vatari, Vempu, Viruntam Telugu: Nimbamu, Picumandamu, Vemu, Vepa Tibetan: Ba-ru-ra, Nim-ba Urdu: Neem SOURCE: Names of Plants in India

DISTRIBUTION

Neem is native to India, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. However, it has been widely introduced into many other countries in tropical and subtropical regions for its innumerable uses.

MORPHOLOGY

Neem is a medium-sized tree with a rounded and dense crown and reaches a height of up to 25 meters. Although it is an evergreen tree, it may shed most of its leaves in North India under drought conditions, displaying its adaptability to environmental variations. The bark is white, grey, reddish brown and scaly. The leaves are pinnately compound, alternate, 20-40 cm long, and have 10-20 leaflets. Leaflets are dark green, 3-6 cm long, mostly asymmetric, and have serrated margins. The inflorescence is made up of drooping, branched, up to 25 cm long panicles with many flowers. The flowers are white, up to 1 cm long, and fragrant. Sepals are five, light green and connate at the base. Petals are white and folded outwards. Stamens are 10 in number in each flower and form a staminal tube. The ovary is with 1 cm long style and simple stigma. The fruit is elongated to oval to round, olive-like, 1.2-2.5 x 1.0-1.5 cm in size, glabrous drupe.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Neem plants contain a wide range of phytochemicals with pharmacological potential. Important bioactive chemical constituents reported from neem are Azadirachtin, Beta-sitosterol, Gedunin, Hyperoside, Kaempferol, Linoleic-acid, Meliantriol, Myricetin, Myristic-acid, Nimbandiol, Nimbidin, Nimbin, Nimbinin, Nimbolide, Nimocinol, Oleic-acid, Palmitic-acid, Quercetin, Quercitrin, Rutin, Salannin, Scopoletin, Tannin, etc.

I. MEDICINAL USES

1. Antibacterial Activity

Neem and Turmeric have a long history of use in treating and healing wounds due to their anti-microbial properties. Neem stems are used as a country brush (datun) due to their anti-bacterial effect. Many in vitro and in vivo studies have been carried out throughout the world to assess its anti-bacterial potential. Leaf and bark extract has been reported to be effective against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus viridans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis.

2. Antiviral Activity

Neem is reported to have anti-viral properties. Computational molecular docking and experimental studies with Dengue virus (DENV), Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Influenza viruses, SARS-CoV-2, Hepatitis C, and Herpes Simplex Viruses (HSV) have reported positive results.

3. Antifungal Activity

Neem is reported to have broad-spectrum antifungal properties against human, animal, and plant pathogens. The antifungal properties are primarily due to the presence of bioactive phytochemicals such as azadirachtin, nimbin, nimbidin, quercetin, and gedunin. These phytochemicals are reported to interfere with fungal cell wall synthesis, inhibit enzyme activity and suppress spore germination. Neem extracts are reported to inhibit the growth of Candida albicans and some weak parasites such as Aspergillus niger, Trichophyton rubrum, and Microsporum gypseum.

4. Antimalarial Activity

Leaf extract of neem is reported to have anti-Plasmodium activity. Pharmacologically active constituents such as Nimbin, Nimocinol, Salannin, Gedunin and Meldenin are responsible for its anti-plasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum and P. berghei  in vitro and against P. vivax in in vivo models.

5. Wound Healing

Medicinal plants are used extensively for wound healing in most of the traditional medicinal systems. Neem is widely used for wound healing by the traditional healers in India. The wound healing properties can be attributed to the presence of fatty acids and phytosterols in neem leaves and seeds. Neem also has potential anti-microbial properties. Dr Samuel and his team have studied the mechanism of wound healing by using neem leaf extract.

6. Antioxidant Activity

Free radicals (unstable molecules) are responsible for oxidative stress in humans, leading to damage in cell membranes and DNA, which can lead to premature ageing, inflammation, and chronic diseases like cancers, diabetes, and heart disease. The free radicals and reactive oxygen species can be neutralised by many phytochemicals by activating the body’s natural antioxidant defences, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), glutathione (GSH), and nitric oxide dioxygenase (NOD). The leaf and bark extracts of neem have considerable antioxidant properties. Azadirachtin, Hyperoside, Nimbolide, Rutin and tannins exhibit excellent antioxidant activity, even better than ascorbic acid (vitamin C).

7. Anti-Inflammatory Effect

Inflammation is a double-edged sword, mostly linked to free radicals or reactive oxygen species. It is the body's vital defence mechanism against injury or infection on one hand, and can also cause serious diseases, including autoimmune disorders (rheumatoid arthritis, lupus), Type 2 diabetes, asthma, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's) when the inflammation becomes chronic. Many phytochemicals express significant anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting pro-inflammatory mediators like cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6) and enzymes (COX (Cyclooxygenase) and LOX (Lipoxygenase) responsible for inflammation, pain, and immune response. Neem extracts have been reported to effectively reduce oedema and inflammation in animal models. Neem phytochemicals Nimbin (triterpenes), Nimbidin, Hyperoside, Flavonoids, Oleic-acid and Rutin are reported to have anti-inflammatory activity expressed through various pathways.

8. Anticancerous Activity

Cancer is a major health problem worldwide these days. The alterations or mutations in DNA structure play a significant role in the development and progression of several types of cancers. Many epidemiological studies have proposed that high flavonoid and limonoid intake lowers the risk of cancer. Neem synthesises a large number of phytochemicals such as Azadirachtin, Gedunin, Hyperoside, Kaempferol, Myristic acid, Nimbolide, Oleic acid, Rutin, β-Sitosterol, and Tannins, which play an important role in tumour suppression and cancer risk reduction as reported through many experimental studies on cancer cell lines and animal models. Marius Alexandru Moga and others have reviewed the mechanism of prevention of gynaecological cancers through neem use recently. A similar study was published in the Journal of Oral Biology and Craniofacial Research for oral cancers in 2020.

9. Hepatoprotective Properties

Many medicinal plants are reported to have liver-protecting properties. Different bioactive phytochemicals exert their effect by reducing liver enzymes (ALT, AST), upregulating natural antioxidants (glutathione, SOD, catalase), preventing lipid peroxidation and restoring normal liver structure and function through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions. Azadirachtin-A and nimbolide are the major experimentally evaluated phytoconstituents in neem. An experimental study carried out in PGI MS Rohtak on rat models has also reported reduced aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (

𝛾-GT) in neem leaf extract-treated animals. Liver necrosis was also reported to be reduced when observed histologically.

10. Antidiabetic Activity

Neem bark is used by traditional healers for managing diabetes. Recent experimental studies have validated the traditional use of neem bark in complementary medicine. A study published in the Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine has reported that neem extract functions by improving the insulin signalling molecules and glucose utilisation in the skeletal muscles in the management of type-2 diabetes mellitus.

11. Nephroprotective Activity

Neem leaf extract has been reported to reduce nephrotoxicity by downregulating malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO) production and oxidative stress in rats.

12. Neuroprotective Effect

Some diseases, such as diabetic neuropathy, cerebral malaria, and excessive stress, lead to neurological disorders in humans. Recent experimental studies have shown that neem leaf extract can protect the neurons by reducing oxidative stress, modulating inflammatory cytokines, and by restoring the neuron structure and function.

13. Immunomodulatory Properties

Neem is commonly used for curing a wide range of diseases in rural societies. Neem leaf extract exhibits considerable immunostimulatory activity through humoral and cell-mediated responses. A recent study has explored the various biological pathways through which neem extract exerts its effect on healing processes.

SAFETY & TOXICITY

Aqueous neem extract is generally considered safe if taken in moderate doses. It expresses its harmful effects in high doses, affecting the liver, kidneys, and nervous system. The toxic dose is different for different experimental models. Neem seeds and oil are toxic if taken through the mouth. Nimbin is reported to have spermicidal properties and may reduce fertility. Children, pregnant women, and breastfeeding ladies are advised not to use any neem product.

II. USE IN COSMETICS

Neem is extensively used in cosmetics and personal care products such as soaps, body lotions, creams, facewashes, etc. due to its anti-microbial and healing properties.

III. USES OF WOOD

Neem wood is used for making high-end furniture, artefacts, and other wooden crafts.

IV. BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL

Insect pests cause extensive damage to crops, stored grains and natural vegetation, leading to economic losses. They pose a significant threat to global food security. Neem leaves and oil are widely used for pest control in agriculture. Azadirachtin, Meldenin, Salannin, Meliantriol, Nimbin, Nimbinol and 6-o-Acetyl-nimbandiol are major anti-feedant and insecticidal principles present in neem.

V. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PLANT PATHOGENS

Neem is a powerful natural and an eco-friendly pesticide for managing plant diseases, offering broad-spectrum protection through phytochemicals such as Azadirachtin, Nimbin, Nimbinin, Nimbolide and Gedunin, which disrupt cell membranes, inhibit enzymes, and interfere with fungal growth. Neem-based fungicides have been reported to be highly effective in the management of powdery mildew, leaf spot disease (caused by Alternaria spp.), and fruit rots (caused by Botrytis spp. and Penicillium spp.). Bacterial plant pathogens such as Xanthomonas axonopodis, Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae, Xanthomonas arboricola pv. corylina, and Agrobacterium tumefaciens are susceptible to neem seed extract.

VI. CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

Neem is deeply ingrained in our cultural, spiritual, ecological, and medicinal heritage in India. Its cultural importance dates back to thousands of years as it finds mention in Vedas, Puranas and Ayurvedic texts like Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita as a powerful healer. Neem leaves are hung at doorways during festivals to ward off evil spirits and infections. It is associated with purity and protection in Hinduism and symbolises health and longevity. Neem leaves are offered to Lord Vishnu and Goddess Durga during festivals.

(TEXT IN RED COLOUR CONTAINS HYPERLINKS TO REFERENCES)