UNDERSTANDING BOTANICAL NAMES OF PLANTS

 

Kerria japonica 

Names are essential for the identity of things. We recognize each other through our names. All the plants have their botanical (scientic) names, but only a few of them have their common names. Common names are easy to memorize as they are in our own l a n g u a g e s a n d a r e mostly related to their uses or peculiarities. However, the common names are not universal and vary from person to person, region to region, and country to country. Any one of us can give common names to plants for our convenience. Each plant can have several different common names. For example, Datura stramonium (dhatura or devil's apple) has over 25 common names in Sanskrit only, besides thousands of other names in other languages. The same common name may refer to several distinct species. On the other hand, the scientic names are unique, based on nomenclatural rules, and accepted worldwide. No second plant in the world can have the same scientic name according to the rules. The rules for the botanical nomenclature of the plants are laid down in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants [ICN; previously International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)].

The scientic name of each plant is made up of two parts, a generic (or genus) epithet or name and a specic (or species) epithet. Together, these two parts of a name are referred to as a binomial. Two parts of a binomial are descriptive in nature and tell many things about that plant in the name itself. A generic name is a 'collective name' for a group of plants with similar characters. The specic name usually species certain characteristics of the plant, the place where the plant is native, or the name of a person. The botanical names are always written with the generic name rst, starting with a capital letter. The specic epithet always follows the generic name, starting with a lower-case letter even when derived from a proper noun such as the name of a person or place. The scientic name is always followed by the name of a person, who discovered and named that plant (known as authority). The botanical names are italicized when typed or underlined when written with hand (they were underlined when typed with a typewriter machine earlier). Generic and specic names are in Latin or are Latinized words from other languages (mostly from Greek). The adoption of Latin has some advantages as well as it is a dead language and not prone to changes like English. Secondly, Latin is specic and exact in meaning and the grammatical sense of the words is easily perceivable.

Let's take an example of a very beautiful plant Calliandra haematocephala Hassk. for understanding botanical names. Literally, Calliandra is made up of two Greek words, Kallos (=beautiful) and andra (= male part of a ower or stamen), meaning a plant with beautiful stamens. Similarly, the specic epithet haematocephala is also a combination of two Greek words, haima (= blood red) and kephale (= head or front), meaning thereby, plant with blood-red head or front. In this name, Hassk. is an abbreviated form of the name of Justus Carl H a s s k a r l ( 1 8 11 - 1 8 9 4 ). Authority is generally ignored in non-scientic writings. This plant is known by many common names in different parts of the world, such as red powder-puff, powder-puff bush, blood-red tassel ower, calliandra, pompon, bellota, zhu ying hua, etc.

Botanical names such as Putranjiva roxburghii (Putrjia or children's life tree; derived from the Indian name of a plant Putrjiva and father of Indian botany Roxburgh), Shivparvatia ciliolata (derived from the names of Hindu God Shiva and the Goddess Parvati of the Himalaya), Mangifera indica (Mango; derived from mango bearing plant and India), Abutilon indicum (Indian mallow; derived from the Arabic word for a mallow-like plant and India), Indigofera himachalensis (derived from blue and Himachal), Festuca simlensis (specic name derived from Shimla), Nepeta hindostana (named after Latin w o r d f o r c a t n i p a n d Hindustan), Canna indica (derived from a Greek name for a type of reed and India) and many other plants have Indianness in their names.

Burans or tree rhododendron (Rhododendron arboretum), a common tree in the Himalayan hills, has acquired its scientic name from its rose-coloured owers and tree-like habit. 

The scientic names of plants look complicated, ugly, and boring to all including the students of botany. However, when we start going into the meanings of those names (can be checked in dictionaries of plant names or in Botanary at Dave's Garden), they become easy and interesting. The meanings of some common botanical names (compiled from Dictionaries of Plant Names) are given below.

Colors of Flowers/Foliage

Gagea lutea

• alba, albus - white
• aurantiaca - orange
• aureus - golden
• caerulea - blue
• candidus - pure white, shiny
• citrinus - yellow
• coccineus - scarlet
• discolor - two or separate
• colors
• flava, flavum - yellow
• glaucus - covered with
• gray bloom
• incana - gray, hoary
• lutea, luteus - reddish
• yellow
• nigra - black
• purpurea, purpureus -
• purple
• rosea - rose-colored
• rubra, rubrum - red
• sanguinea - blood-red
• viridis – green

Plant Shape

• arborescens - treelike
• elegans - elegant,
• slender, willowy
• erecta - upright, erect
• fruticosa - shrublike
• grandi - big
• humilis - low-growing
• pendula -drooping,
• pendulous
• prostrata, procumbens -
• prostrate
• pumilia - low-growing,
• dwarf

Plant Smell, Taste

• amara, amarus - bitter
• dulce - sweet
• foetida - foul smelling
• fragrans - fragrant
• moschata - musk odor
• odorata – scented

Leaf Form

• acerifolius - maplelike
• leaves
• lanceolata - lance-shaped
• longifolia - long-leaved
• macrophylla - largeleaved
• microphylla - smallleaved
• parvifolia, parvifolius -
• small-leaved
• palmatum - hand-shaped
• leaves
• rotundifolia - roundleaved
• salicifolius - willowlike
• leaves

Origin of Species

• alpina - alpine regions
• americana- from America
• australis - southern
• borealis - northern
• campestris - of the field
• or plains
• canadensis - from Canada
• chinensis - from China
• indica, indicus - from
• India
• insularis - of the island
• japonica, japonicum -
• from Japan
• maritima - from near the
• sea
• mexicana- from Mexico
• montana - from the
• mountains
• palustris - from marshes
• or wetlands
• saxatilis - inhabiting rocks
• 
  

Plant Peculiarities

• acaulis - stemless
• communis - common
• cordata - heart-shaped
• crispa - finely waved,
• curled
• florida, floridus -flowering
• gracilis - graceful
• grandiflora - largeflowered
• hybridus - hybrid
• incana - gray-haired
• lactea - milky
• laevis - smooth
• maculata - spotted
• majus - larger
• maxima - largest
• minor, minus - smaller
• mollis - soft and/or hairy
• multiflora - manyflowered
• nitida, nitidum - shining
• officinalis - used as
• perenne, perennis -
• perennial
• pictum - painted
• pulchella - pretty
• punctata - spotted

• repens, reptans -
• creeping
• scandens - climbing
• semperflorens -
• everblooming
• sempervirens - evergreen
• speciosa - showy
• spectabilis - spectacular
• spinarum - spiniest
• spinosus - spiny
• tomentosa, tomentosum -
• hairy
• umbellata - having
• flowers in umbels
• variegata - variegated
• villosa, villosum - softly hairy
• vulgaris - common

NEEM: From Village Pharmacy to Scientifically Validated Medicine

Our traditional healing practices are deeply rooted in rural communities, where natural resources like plants and minerals and associated indigenous knowledge, formed the core of healthcare systems. These medicinal resources provided important leads to the development of many scientifically validated medicines after rigorous experimental scrutiny in the 19th and 20th centuries. Over 25% of modern drugs are derived from plants or their derivatives or even inspired by nature. Many of the plant-derived modern medicines are still part of the healthcare system in the world. Paclitaxel (tetracyclic diterpenoid from Taxus brevifolia and other Taxus spp.) for various cancers, Artemisinin (sequiterpene lactone from Artemisia annua) for malaria, quinine (alkaloid from Cinchona spp.) for malaria, Digitoxin (cardiac glycoside from Digitalis spp.) for congestive heart failure, Morphine and Codeine (opioid alkaloid from Papaver somniferum) for pain-relieving effect and antitussive properties, Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid from Salix spp.) for anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving and antipyretic properties, Colchicine (colchicinic acid from Colchicum autumnale) for antitumor, gout and myocardial infarction, Vinblastine and Vincristine (alkaloids from Catharanthus roseus) as anticancer agents, Bromelain (proteolytic enzyme from Ananas comosus) for anti-inflammatory proprties, Rutin/Rutoside/Sophorin (flavonoid glycoside found Citrus and others members of Rutaceae and some other families) for oedema, endothelial dysfunction and pain relief, and Borneol (terpene derivative from Artemisia spp., Rosmarinus officinalis and others) for treatment of diabetic retinopathy and angina pectoris are some of the common examples of plant derived healing phytochemicals.

Neem, revered for centuries in traditional medicinal systems, is part of the rural healing practices and is often referred to as the “Village Pharmacy” due to its extensive therapeutic applications. Scientifically known as Azadirachta indica, is an evergreen or semi-evergreen tree from the mahogany family (Meliaceae). Neem is not just connected with the healing practices but is also intimately associated with ecological protection and sacred traditions, giving it a title “Miracle Tree.”

NAMES IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES

English: Indian lilac, Margosa tree Hindi: Neem, Nim, Arisht, Paribhadra Punjabi: Nimm Pahari: Neem Sanskrit: Arishta, Chhardighna, Cirnaparna, Dhamana, Jyeshthamalaka, Kakaphala, Nibandha, Nimba, Pakvakrt, Panduraga, Paribhadra, Pichumarda, Pitasaraka, Prabhadra, Puyari, Rajabhadraka, Sarvatobhadra, Shukapriya, Subhadra, Varatikta, Varatvaca, Vishirnaparna, Yavaneshta Assamese: Nim Bengali: Nim Gujarati: Limdo Kannada: Bevu, Nimba Kashmiri: Nyombu Konkani: Kodbevu Malayalam: Aryavepp Marathi: Kadulimba, Khatanimba Odia: Nim Pali: Nimba, Panna, Puchimanda Persian: Azad-Darakht-e-Hind (the free tree of India) Tamil: Akaluti, Aricu, Arittam, Aruluruti, Arunati, Atipam, Cava-Muli, Cirina-Pannam, Kacappi, Kati-P-Pakai, Keca-Mutti, Kinci, Kotaravali, Nalatampu, Nimpam, Niyacam, Picacappiriyam, Picitam, Picumantam, Pumari, Puyari, Ukkira-Kantam, Vatari, Vempu, Viruntam Telugu: Nimbamu, Picumandamu, Vemu, Vepa Tibetan: Ba-ru-ra, Nim-ba Urdu: Neem SOURCE: Names of Plants in India

DISTRIBUTION

Neem is native to India, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. However, it has been widely introduced into many other countries in tropical and subtropical regions for its innumerable uses.

MORPHOLOGY

Neem is a medium-sized tree with a rounded and dense crown and reaches a height of up to 25 meters. Although it is an evergreen tree, it may shed most of its leaves in North India under drought conditions, displaying its adaptability to environmental variations. The bark is white, grey, reddish brown and scaly. The leaves are pinnately compound, alternate, 20-40 cm long, and have 10-20 leaflets. Leaflets are dark green, 3-6 cm long, mostly asymmetric, and have serrated margins. The inflorescence is made up of drooping, branched, up to 25 cm long panicles with many flowers. The flowers are white, up to 1 cm long, and fragrant. Sepals are five, light green and connate at the base. Petals are white and folded outwards. Stamens are 10 in number in each flower and form a staminal tube. The ovary is with 1 cm long style and simple stigma. The fruit is elongated to oval to round, olive-like, 1.2-2.5 x 1.0-1.5 cm in size, glabrous drupe.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Neem plants contain a wide range of phytochemicals with pharmacological potential. Important bioactive chemical constituents reported from neem are Azadirachtin, Beta-sitosterol, Gedunin, Hyperoside, Kaempferol, Linoleic-acid, Meliantriol, Myricetin, Myristic-acid, Nimbandiol, Nimbidin, Nimbin, Nimbinin, Nimbolide, Nimocinol, Oleic-acid, Palmitic-acid, Quercetin, Quercitrin, Rutin, Salannin, Scopoletin, Tannin, etc.

I. MEDICINAL USES

1. Antibacterial Activity

Neem and Turmeric have a long history of use in treating and healing wounds due to their anti-microbial properties. Neem stems are used as a country brush (datun) due to their anti-bacterial effect. Many in vitro and in vivo studies have been carried out throughout the world to assess its anti-bacterial potential. Leaf and bark extract has been reported to be effective against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus viridans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis.

2. Antiviral Activity

Neem is reported to have anti-viral properties. Computational molecular docking and experimental studies with Dengue virus (DENV), Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Influenza viruses, SARS-CoV-2, Hepatitis C, and Herpes Simplex Viruses (HSV) have reported positive results.

3. Antifungal Activity

Neem is reported to have broad-spectrum antifungal properties against human, animal, and plant pathogens. The antifungal properties are primarily due to the presence of bioactive phytochemicals such as azadirachtin, nimbin, nimbidin, quercetin, and gedunin. These phytochemicals are reported to interfere with fungal cell wall synthesis, inhibit enzyme activity and suppress spore germination. Neem extracts are reported to inhibit the growth of Candida albicans and some weak parasites such as Aspergillus niger, Trichophyton rubrum, and Microsporum gypseum.

4. Antimalarial Activity

Leaf extract of neem is reported to have anti-Plasmodium activity. Pharmacologically active constituents such as Nimbin, Nimocinol, Salannin, Gedunin and Meldenin are responsible for its anti-plasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum and P. berghei  in vitro and against P. vivax in in vivo models.

5. Wound Healing

Medicinal plants are used extensively for wound healing in most of the traditional medicinal systems. Neem is widely used for wound healing by the traditional healers in India. The wound healing properties can be attributed to the presence of fatty acids and phytosterols in neem leaves and seeds. Neem also has potential anti-microbial properties. Dr Samuel and his team have studied the mechanism of wound healing by using neem leaf extract.

6. Antioxidant Activity

Free radicals (unstable molecules) are responsible for oxidative stress in humans, leading to damage in cell membranes and DNA, which can lead to premature ageing, inflammation, and chronic diseases like cancers, diabetes, and heart disease. The free radicals and reactive oxygen species can be neutralised by many phytochemicals by activating the body’s natural antioxidant defences, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), glutathione (GSH), and nitric oxide dioxygenase (NOD). The leaf and bark extracts of neem have considerable antioxidant properties. Azadirachtin, Hyperoside, Nimbolide, Rutin and tannins exhibit excellent antioxidant activity, even better than ascorbic acid (vitamin C).

7. Anti-Inflammatory Effect

Inflammation is a double-edged sword, mostly linked to free radicals or reactive oxygen species. It is the body's vital defence mechanism against injury or infection on one hand, and can also cause serious diseases, including autoimmune disorders (rheumatoid arthritis, lupus), Type 2 diabetes, asthma, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's) when the inflammation becomes chronic. Many phytochemicals express significant anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting pro-inflammatory mediators like cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6) and enzymes (COX (Cyclooxygenase) and LOX (Lipoxygenase) responsible for inflammation, pain, and immune response. Neem extracts have been reported to effectively reduce oedema and inflammation in animal models. Neem phytochemicals Nimbin (triterpenes), Nimbidin, Hyperoside, Flavonoids, Oleic-acid and Rutin are reported to have anti-inflammatory activity expressed through various pathways.

8. Anticancerous Activity

Cancer is a major health problem worldwide these days. The alterations or mutations in DNA structure play a significant role in the development and progression of several types of cancers. Many epidemiological studies have proposed that high flavonoid and limonoid intake lowers the risk of cancer. Neem synthesises a large number of phytochemicals such as Azadirachtin, Gedunin, Hyperoside, Kaempferol, Myristic acid, Nimbolide, Oleic acid, Rutin, β-Sitosterol, and Tannins, which play an important role in tumour suppression and cancer risk reduction as reported through many experimental studies on cancer cell lines and animal models. Marius Alexandru Moga and others have reviewed the mechanism of prevention of gynaecological cancers through neem use recently. A similar study was published in the Journal of Oral Biology and Craniofacial Research for oral cancers in 2020.

9. Hepatoprotective Properties

Many medicinal plants are reported to have liver-protecting properties. Different bioactive phytochemicals exert their effect by reducing liver enzymes (ALT, AST), upregulating natural antioxidants (glutathione, SOD, catalase), preventing lipid peroxidation and restoring normal liver structure and function through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions. Azadirachtin-A and nimbolide are the major experimentally evaluated phytoconstituents in neem. An experimental study carried out in PGI MS Rohtak on rat models has also reported reduced aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (

𝛾-GT) in neem leaf extract-treated animals. Liver necrosis was also reported to be reduced when observed histologically.

10. Antidiabetic Activity

Neem bark is used by traditional healers for managing diabetes. Recent experimental studies have validated the traditional use of neem bark in complementary medicine. A study published in the Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine has reported that neem extract functions by improving the insulin signalling molecules and glucose utilisation in the skeletal muscles in the management of type-2 diabetes mellitus.

11. Nephroprotective Activity

Neem leaf extract has been reported to reduce nephrotoxicity by downregulating malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO) production and oxidative stress in rats.

12. Neuroprotective Effect

Some diseases, such as diabetic neuropathy, cerebral malaria, and excessive stress, lead to neurological disorders in humans. Recent experimental studies have shown that neem leaf extract can protect the neurons by reducing oxidative stress, modulating inflammatory cytokines, and by restoring the neuron structure and function.

13. Immunomodulatory Properties

Neem is commonly used for curing a wide range of diseases in rural societies. Neem leaf extract exhibits considerable immunostimulatory activity through humoral and cell-mediated responses. A recent study has explored the various biological pathways through which neem extract exerts its effect on healing processes.

SAFETY & TOXICITY

Aqueous neem extract is generally considered safe if taken in moderate doses. It expresses its harmful effects in high doses, affecting the liver, kidneys, and nervous system. The toxic dose is different for different experimental models. Neem seeds and oil are toxic if taken through the mouth. Nimbin is reported to have spermicidal properties and may reduce fertility. Children, pregnant women, and breastfeeding ladies are advised not to use any neem product.

II. USE IN COSMETICS

Neem is extensively used in cosmetics and personal care products such as soaps, body lotions, creams, facewashes, etc. due to its anti-microbial and healing properties.

III. USES OF WOOD

Neem wood is used for making high-end furniture, artefacts, and other wooden crafts.

IV. BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL

Insect pests cause extensive damage to crops, stored grains and natural vegetation, leading to economic losses. They pose a significant threat to global food security. Neem leaves and oil are widely used for pest control in agriculture. Azadirachtin, Meldenin, Salannin, Meliantriol, Nimbin, Nimbinol and 6-o-Acetyl-nimbandiol are major anti-feedant and insecticidal principles present in neem.

V. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PLANT PATHOGENS

Neem is a powerful natural and an eco-friendly pesticide for managing plant diseases, offering broad-spectrum protection through phytochemicals such as Azadirachtin, Nimbin, Nimbinin, Nimbolide and Gedunin, which disrupt cell membranes, inhibit enzymes, and interfere with fungal growth. Neem-based fungicides have been reported to be highly effective in the management of powdery mildew, leaf spot disease (caused by Alternaria spp.), and fruit rots (caused by Botrytis spp. and Penicillium spp.). Bacterial plant pathogens such as Xanthomonas axonopodis, Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae, Xanthomonas arboricola pv. corylina, and Agrobacterium tumefaciens are susceptible to neem seed extract.

VI. CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

Neem is deeply ingrained in our cultural, spiritual, ecological, and medicinal heritage in India. Its cultural importance dates back to thousands of years as it finds mention in Vedas, Puranas and Ayurvedic texts like Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita as a powerful healer. Neem leaves are hung at doorways during festivals to ward off evil spirits and infections. It is associated with purity and protection in Hinduism and symbolises health and longevity. Neem leaves are offered to Lord Vishnu and Goddess Durga during festivals.

(TEXT IN RED COLOUR CONTAINS HYPERLINKS TO REFERENCES)

TULSI: The Mother Medicine of Nature

 

Rama Tulsi or Sri Tulsi

Tulsi or holy basil is a revered medicinal herb in India. Its aromatic leaves are part of traditional herbal practices in the entire Indian subcontinent, where it is often used in teas and culinary dishes to impart a distinctive taste and to support overall wellness.  Botanically known as Ocimum tenuiflorum (previously known as Ocimum sanctum), it belongs to the mint family (Lamiaceae). It is considered a symbol of purity and devotion in Hinduism and is also an essential part of many sacred traditions. It is considered an earthly manifestation of the goddess Lakshmi and is worshipped. It is often hailed as the "Queen of Herbs" due to its extensive medicinal, spiritual, religious, and culinary applications. Sometimes, it is also referred to as "Mother Medicine of Nature". It is widely used in traditional medicine systems of Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani, besides extensive use in Indian folk medicine. Two cultivars commonly found growing in India are Rama, Lakshmi or Sri Tulsi (green leaves) and Krishna or Shyama Tulsi (purplish leaves). 

Shyama Tulsi or Krishna Tulsi

NAMES IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES

English: Holy basil, Indian basil, Sacred basil, Monks’ basil, Purple-stalked basil Hindi: Tulsi, Barinda, Varada Punjabi: Tulsi Sanskrit: Tulasi (matchless), Ajaka, Arjaka, Bharati, Divya, Brinda, Manjari, Parnasa, Patrapushpa, Suvasa Tulsi, Gouri, Nagamata, Bhutaghni, Bhutapriya, Bhuteshta, Bhutapati, Apetarakshasi, Gramya (found in every household), Surasa (having good taste), Sulaghni, Subhaga, Sulabha (auspicious), Surabhi, Svadu gandha (having good scent), Sumanjari, Bahumanjari, Pavani, Devadundubhi, Visnuvallabha (beloved of Lord Vishnu), Haripriya (beloved to Lord Vishnu), Vaishnavi Bengali: Jiuli, Jiyal, Kalotulsi, Krishna Tulasi Gujarati: Tulasi Kannada: Sritulasi, Tulasi-gidda, Vishnu-tulasi Malayalam: Thulasi, Krishnathulasi, Karimthulasi, Kunnakam, Nallatulluva tulasi, Shiva-tulasi, Tritavvu Marathi: Tulasi, Tulasa, Kala-tulasi, Tulshi, Chajadha Tamil: Thulasi, Karimthulasi, Nalla-thulsi, Alungai, Karuntulasi, Kuli mitan Telugu: Tulasi, Brinda, Brynda, Gaggera, Gaggerachettu, Gumpina, Krushnatulasi, Oddhi Urdu: Tulsi SOURCE: Different books and research papers

 

DISTRIBUTION

Native to the Indian subcontinent and other Southeast Asian nations, holy basil can reach elevations of up to 1800 meters above mean sea level. Because of its utility, it has also been introduced to numerous other tropical and subtropical nations worldwide.

Flowers

MORPHOLOGY

Holy basil is an upright subshrub growing to a height of up to 60 cm. Two cultivars commonly occur in India; the one with green leaves is called Rama Tulsi, and the other with purplish leaves is known as Shyama or Krishna Tulsi. Stem is branched, woody below and herbaceous above; young branches are hairy. Leaves are highly aromatic, opposite, simple, up to 5 cm long, ovate, glandular, pilose on veins, base rounded, leaf margin shallowly undulate-serrate, apex obtuse. Flowers are arranged in 3-6-flowered verticillasters, which in turn form racemes.  Flowers are small, pale to purple to reddish in colour. Calyx is campanulate, villous and greenish or purplish in colour. Corolla is white to reddish or even purplish in colour, sparsely puberulent, tubular, tube dilated at the throat. Stamens are slightly exserted, green to purplish in colour. Fruit is a brown nutlet.

 

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Holy basil contains a large number of phytochemicals such as essential oils (eugenol (phenylpropenic compound; 60–70% of the oil content), methyl eugenol, borneol, citral, camphene), flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin, vitexin, orientin, vicenin), phenolic compounds (rosmarinic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, vanillic acid, ferulic acid), terpenoids (ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, β-caryophyllene, 4,5-epoxy-caryophyllene)) and sterols (β-sitosterol, stigmasterol). However, major bioactive medicinal compounds are eugenol (phenolic compound), ursolic acid (triterpenoid), rosmarinic acid      (polyphenol),      linalool (terpene alcohol),        carvacrol (monoterpenoid), caryophyllene (sesquiterpene), apigenin (flavonoid),     luteolin     (flavonoid), and orientin (flavonoid C-glycoside). 

Rama Tulsi or Sri Tulsi

I. MEDICINAL USES

1. Boosts Immunity

Holy basil is considered one of the best immunity-boosting plants in the world. Long-term traditional use and modern research support its role as a holistic agent for enhancing both innate and adaptive immunity. Its effectiveness is attributed to the presence of highly bioactive compounds, including eugenol, ursolic acid, and rosmarinic acid. Key mechanisms for boosting the immunity include stimulating the immune cell activity (increasing the number and activity of T-helper cells, natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages, and neutrophils) and enhancing the antibody production (B-cell differentiation and immunoglobulin (IgG, IgM) production).

2. Anti-Inflammatory Properties

Inflammatory conditions such as arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), etc., have become quite common these days. Holy basil exhibited a significant anti-inflammatory activity in many experimental studies. Many phytochemicals, such as eugenol, flavonoids, and phenolic acids, are reported to exert their anti-inflammatory effect by blocking cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways of arachidonic acid metabolism involved in bodily inflammations.

3. Antioxidant Properties

Free radicals are involved in inducing oxidative stress in all living organisms. Oxidative stress is linked with the ageing process, heart disease, and cancer. Many plant species have been reported to reduce the damage caused by free radicals in the body organs. The phytochemicals like eugenol, flavonoids, and phenolic acids present in holy basil have strong antioxidant properties, which help to neutralise the free radicals and prevent cellular oxidative damage.

4. Adaptogenic (Stress-Reducing) Effect

Holy basil is considered one of the best adaptogens of plant origin. It helps the body adapt to stress by reducing cortisol levels (the stress hormone), reducing HPA (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal)-axis activity, and lowering stress markers like salivary amylase. Holy basil tea helps in managing stress, anxiety, and depression by positively regulating neurotransmitter activity, boosting resilience, and improving sleep.

5. Antiviral Activity

Holy basil has been reported to exhibit a potent antiviral effect on human viruses like Herpes simplex virus, Hepatitis B virus, Adenovirus, H9N2 virus, and Avian influenza virus in experimental studies. Eugenol, an essential oil present in holy basil and some other plants such as clove, is reported to inhibit the interaction between SARS-CoV-2 spike protein S1 and receptor ACE2 and can protect against COVID-19.

6. Antibacterial Activity

Holy basil has been reported to exhibit potential antibacterial activity against a Gram-positive bacterium Staphylococcus aureus and a Gram-negative bacterium Yersinia enterocolitica.

7. Anti-Fungal Activity

Holy basil essential oils have been reported to exhibit an anti-fungal activity against Candida albicans, a causal organism of thrush (oral/vaginal) and other life-threatening systemic infections (candidemia) in immunocompromised patients. Essential oils were also found to be effective against Candida tropicalis, Cryptococcus neoformans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, T. verrucosum, Microsporum canis, M. gypseum, and Epidermophyton floccosum.

8. Good for Respiratory Health

Holy basil is beneficial for respiratory health, and it has been traditionally used to treat conditions related to the lungs. It is a good bronchodilator and expectorant, and thus helps open the airways and improve airflow to the lungs. Therefore, it is beneficial for conditions like asthma, cough, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and bronchitis. Holy basil is a good remedy for conditions like sinusitis and allergic rhinitis due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, and anti-bacterial properties.

9. Analgesic Properties

Experimental studies have shown that holy basil has analgesic properties similar to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. This is probably due to inhibition of COX (cyclooxygenase) activity and inhibition of the release of other endogenous pain mediators.

10. Good for Cardiovascular Health

Holy basil is also good for heart health in numerous ways and is considered useful for maintaining cardiovascular well-being. Experimental studies suggest that it may help lower high blood pressure (hypertension) by improving blood circulation and reducing stress levels. It is also reported to decrease the levels of bad cholesterol (LDL) while increasing good cholesterol (HDL) and reducing the risk of atherosclerosis. By managing cholesterol and inflammation, holy basil helps prevent plaque formation in arteries, reducing risk of heart attacks and strokes. Eugenol prevents the formation of blood clots.

11. Anti-Diabetic Properties

Holy basil has been traditionally used as a remedy for managing diabetes and high blood sugar. It is reported to improve insulin sensitivity and regulate blood sugar levels. Its antioxidant properties help mitigate oxidative stress caused by diabetes and thus prevent damage to the kidneys, eyes, and heart. Ursolic acid is a bioactive compound responsible for managing blood sugar levels.

12. Good for Digestive Health

Holy basil is beneficial for the digestive system and is used to treat various gastrointestinal disorders such as indigestion, flatulence, bloating, and constipation.

13. Useful in Skin Problems

Holy basil is considered useful in treating a variety of skin problems such as acne, pimples, infections, dandruff and ageing due to its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties.

14. Hepatoprotective Properties

Holy basil is believed to support liver health by helping the body eliminate toxins and waste products. Its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds may protect liver cells from oxidative stress caused by environmental toxins, alcohol exposure, and certain medications, as shown in experimental animals.

15. Prevention of Neurodegenerative Disorders

Leaf extract of holy basil is considered to enhance memory and cognitive function, improve mood, and focus. It is also reported to be useful in preventing age-related neurodegenerative changes.

16. Anticancer Properties

Experimental studies with cancer cell lines have shown that holy basil extract can induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) and stop the multiple molecular pathways involved in cancer development and progression. Ursolic acid and apigenin present in leaf extract are reported to be bioactive phytochemicals with antitumour and anticancer properties.

 Krishna Tulsi

II. CULTURAL AND SPIRITUAL SIGNIFICANCE

 The holy basil plant is cultivated in the courtyards of homes and temples across India in a four-sided raised structure. It is worshipped with mantras and offerings of flowers, incense, and water on a daily basis. Holy basil is revered in Hinduism as a manifestation of the goddess Lakshmi (Tulsi Devi; Goddess of Wealth) and is believed to attract peace, prosperity, and divine energy into the homes. It is considered sacred by the Vaishnavites (devotees of Vishnu), who associate Rama Tulsi with Maryada Purushottam Lord Rama (7^th Avatar) and Shyama Tulsi with Lord Krishna (Purna Avatar, 8^th Avatar). Tulsi Japa mala (rosaries) of holy basil are considered sacred and used by devotees to recite prayers and to wear around the neck. Water infused with the leaves of holy basil is poured into the mouth of dying persons with the hope that the deceased may obtain moksha.

Tulsi Japa Mala (Rosary)

According to the Shiva Purana, Tulsi is believed to be the earthly form of Goddess Vrinda, devoted wife of Asura Jalandhara and an ardent devotee of Lord Vishnu. As Lord Shiva killed her husband to preserve the worldly order, she denounced Lord Shiva and cursed him that no part of Tulsi would be used in Shiva's worship.

Tulsi Vivah is a sacred ritual in Hinduism wherein holy basil is ceremonially wedded to Shaligram or Amla branch, personifications of Lord Vishnu.

Despite its purity and sacredness, holy basil leaves are not offered to Lord Shiva and Lord Ganesha (Shiv Parivar).

Details on the sacred, cultural, and spiritual aspects of holy basil can be accessed in a book, SACRED AND RITUAL PLANTS OF INDIA: Lore, Symbolism, Traditions authored by a renowned scientist, Dr. P.N. Ravindran.

 

    III. ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS

Holy basil does not serve only religious purposes, but it has air-purifying properties as well. It can absorb the air pollutants and can also make the air free of disease-causing viruses in the air. Essential oils (specifically eugenol), which escape into the surrounding air around homes, repel insects, including mosquitoes, contributing to a safe living environment. Thousands of holy basil saplings were planted by the UP Forest Department and Organic India around the Taj Mahal in 2008-2009 to combat air pollution and to prevent yellowing and deterioration of marble.

CAUTION

Holy basil is generally regarded as safe if used in moderate doses. Studies on animal models have shown that oral use in quantities of more than 2000mg/kg body weight causes oral toxicity. 

OTHER BASILS CULTIVATED IN INDIA

Sweet Basil or Sabja (Ocimum basilicum)

Thai Basil (Ocimum basilicum var. thyrsiflorum)

Wild Basil or Vana Tulsi or Budhhi Tulsi (Ocimum gratissimum var. gratissimum)

Clove Basil (Ocimum gratissimum var. macrophyllum)

Camphor Basil (Ocimum kilimandscharicum)

Camphor Basil (Ocimum kilimandscharicum)

Hoary Basil (Ocimum americanum)

Lemon Basil or Lao basil (Ocimum x africanum)

Basil (Ocimum sp.)

Basil (Ocimum sp.)

Basil (Ocimum sp.)

(TEXT IN RED COLOUR CONTAINS HYPERLINKS TO REFERENCES)