Maidenhair Tree: An Ornamental, Sacred and Medicinal Living Fossil

Female tree with seeds enclosed by fleshy coat

Maidenhair Tree, scientifically known as Ginkgo biloba (etymology GING-ko bi-LOW-buh), is a medium-sized deciduous tree in the family Ginkgoaceae of Gymnosperms (groups of plants with naked seeds as they do not produce fruits). The botanical name is derived from the Chinese word ‘Ginkgo’ meaning silver apricot and ‘biloba’ meaning two lobes in the context of leaves. It is the lone surviving member of its family as all others have become extinct during the Pleiocene (5 to 2.58 million years ago) epoch in the geologic time scale due to climatic upheavals. The maidenhair trees are also witness to the existence of dinosaurs in the Jurassic Period (199 million to 145 million years ago).

Approximately 150-200 years old tree growing in Shimla

The maidenhair tree, considered a relic species, is known by many other common names such as Bal Kumari (in Hindi), Sacred Tree of the East, Tree Hair of Venus, Bearer of Hope, The Living Fossil, Yin Xing, etc. The name ‘Living Fossil’ comes from the fact that this tree has not changed much since its origin and evolution in the Permian period nearly 270 million years ago as is evident from the fossil records. The common name ‘Bearer of Hope’ was given to the plants of this species as they were the only survivors of the nuclear attacks in Japan in 1945. It is a sacred plant to the Buddhists and is cultivated extensively near monasteries in Japan, Korea, and China.

       Approximately 150-200 years old tree growing in Shimla

Morphological Characteristics

Maidenhair tree is a medium-sized tree growing up to 40 m tall and having a trunk diameter up to 4 m. The bark of this tree is light gray or grayish brown and longitudinally fissured in old plants. The crown is conical when young and becomes broadly ovoid in old mature trees. Two types of branches, long branches, and short branchlets are visible. Leaves have prominent petioles and pale green leaf blades, turning bright yellow in autumn to give a magnificent look to the trees. The leaf blades on the long branchlets are divided by a deep, apical sinus into 2 lobes (specific name is derived from this characteristic) and each lobe is further dissected. The leaves on short branchlets have undulate margin.

Fan-shaped leaves

Dried leaves of maidenhair tree

The maidenhair trees are dioecious (individual plants are either male or female) and produce either catkin-like male cones or single-seeded female cones enclosed by fleshy integument known as sarcotesta. The female plants are wind-pollinated in March-April and are self-fertile. Seeds are elliptic, ovoid, or subglobose, measuring up to 3.5 cm, and are enclosed by a fleshy yellow, or orange-yellow sarcotesta (modified fleshy integument). The fleshy sarcotesta emits a rancid odour when ripe in September or October.

Catkin-like male cones of maidenhair tree
(Photograph courtesy: Dr. Om Prakash Vidyarthi ji, Retd. IFS)

Mature seeds enclosed in orange-coloured fleshy sarcotesta

(Photograph courtesy: Sh. Om Prakash Vidyarthi ji, Retd. IFS)

USES

1. For Landscaping:

Maidenhair tree can tolerate a wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions, including pollution, and is cultivated as a landscape tree in many parts of the world. The bright yellow autumn colour of the leaves gives the trees a magnificent look.

Beautiful bright yellow autumn colour of Maidenhair tree growing in Cheshmashahi Botanical Garden in Srinagar (J&K)

(Photograph courtesy: Mr. Shayiq Rasool Kar, Deputy Director, Kashmir Department of Floriculture, Gardens & Parks, Srinagar)

2. As a Sacred Plant:

Maidenhair tree is sacred to Buddhists as is Peepal to the Hindus. It is frequently planted near Budhist monasteries in Japan, Korea, China, and other countries.

3. Medicinal Uses:

Ginkgo green tea

Maidenhair tree contains a diverse array of phytochemicals such as lactone derivatives (ginkgolides), ginkgo heterosides, bilobalides (terpene lactones) and flavonoids (flavonol and flavone glycosides). Other constituents are 6-hydroxykinuretic acid, catechin, isorhamnetin, kaempferol, protocatechuic acid, quercetin, shikimic acid, sterols and vanillic acid. These phytochemical constituents are responsible for the medicinal properties of the maidenhair tree. It has been suggested to use Ginkgo biloba in the form of tea, extract or other ready-made products. Some of the medicinal properties are listed below:

i. Memory Improvement: The leaves of maidenhair tree are considered a brain tonic. It is reported to improve age-related memory loss in old people. Ginkgo biloba is available as a single herbal formulation or in combination with other constituents. Mostly, mature leaves are used for medicinal purposes.

Ginkgo based herbal medicines

(Available on Tata 1mg)

ii. For Anxiety and Depression: Studies have reported that oral intake of extract of Ginkgo leaves gives beneficial results in elderly persons with anxiety related to cognitive decline. Its intake allays the symptoms of depression. 

iii. Regulation of Blood Circulation: It is reported to improve blood circulation in the brain due to the presence of high flavonoid content in the yellow autumn harvested leaves.

iv. Relief in Asthma: Intake of Ginkgo biloba leaves is beneficial in cough and asthma.  

v. Anti-microbial Properties: Plant extract has been reported to be anti-bacterial and anti-fungal. 

vi. Anti-Inflammatory Activity: The maidenhair tree is considered one of the best botanicals for reducing inflammation.

vii. For Cholesterol and Hypertension: 3-6 grams of leaves taken daily reduces the serum cholesterol and regulates the high blood pressure.

viii. Cure for Leucorrhoea: Roots of maidenhair tree are recommended as a cure for leucorrhoea.

4. As a Pesticide:

The leaves of the maidenhair tree are also used as a biopesticide.

5. As a Nut:
The seeds of the maidenhair tree are roasted to detoxify and eaten in China. Raw seeds contain toxic constituent ginkgotoxin, which has anti-vitamin B6 activity and inhibits gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) formation required for neurotransmission. The recommended dose per day is less than 15 grams of nuts.

A branch showing fissured bark

Cultivation

The maidenhair trees can be propagated through seeds or vegetatively through stem cuttings. Plants raised through seeds grow faster than the plants raised through rooting of stem cuttings.

eFloraofIndia: One of the Largest Citizen Science Projects in the World

 

The twenty-first century is a century dominated by technology, which permeates every aspect of our lives. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been embraced by the plant sciences for data analysis, archiving, and retrieval. J.M. Garg Ji, an electrical engineer and alumnus of Panjab University, Chandigarh, founded a small Google group "Indiantreepix" on June 17, 2007, to discuss the identification and uses of trees that grow in different parts of India. Later, in order to make it more inclusive, the name was changed to "eFloraofIndia." Over time, more people like me joined, and as a result, its membership eventually grew to more than 3200 members from all around the world. eFloraofIndia celebrated the completion of its highly productive 15 years in June 2022.

Today, eFloraofIndia (eFI) is one of the largest and best resources available on India Flora on the web. It has a collection of more than 4,00,000 images of more than 14,000 species (out of the total of around 18,000 species found in India). eFI is a dynamic site where data is updated and improved continuously for about six hours virtually every day. The eFI website is regularly improved and updated by a group of pillars, moderators and experts. The precious resources of eFI are the images, which are shared by its members travelling to every nook and corner of India. The images are properly identified by a team of experts and given the final shape at the website. On the eFI website, all contributions are acknowledged. Botanists, taxonomic experts, bureaucrats, engineers, IT professionals, researchers, teachers, private professionals, doctors, students, and laymen are among the committed members of the group.

The best thing about the eFI database is that the taxa have been arranged in Family and genera pages on the website. The detailed discussions by experts can be seen on the species pages. Many photographs shared in the group for identification later became new species or additions to the Flora of India. Some species have been named after the names of eFI members as a due credit for bringing those species in the knowledge of taxonomic experts. A page on threated and endangered species of India is very informative and has links to the images of those plants contributed by its members.

Everyone will be amazed to learn that throughout the last 15 years, while constructing this largest citizen science initiative, not a single rupee has been collected from any source. The collective efforts of the group members are worth thousands of crores of rupees, if ever assessed in terms of money. But there is no way to quantify the devoted work that its members and specialists from around the world put in. It is a worthwhile lesson to be taught in colleges and universities as it provides an excellent example of one of the biggest citizen science initiatives in India.

ECHINACEA: A MEDICINE IN YOUR GARDEN

 

Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea)

Echinacea (ek-in-AY-shee-a or ek-in-AY-see-a; derived from Greek word ekhinos, meaning urchin or porcupine, due to the spiny central disk of the composite flowers head) is a genus of flowering plants from the Aster family (Asteraceae/Compositae) including nine accepted species. Most of the species are native to Eastern and Central North America. The most common species grown in the gardens and used medicinally are E. purpurea (purple coneflowers or hedgehog coneflowers) and E. angustifolia (narrow-leaf coneflower). E. pallida (pale-purple coneflower) also forms a part of the pharmaceutical supply chain. Echinacea angustifolia is used for hundreds of years for treating flu, cold, sore throat, respiratory tract infections and difficult to heal wounds by the native Americans. However, many herbalists are also using E. purpurea for all these symptoms. According to a report published in HerbalGram (The Journal of the American Botanical Council) in the Fall issue of 2021, Echinacea stands at No. 9 in the list of top-selling herbal supplements and the total sales stand at $12,856,524 in the USA alone.

Spiny head of the inflorescence (capitulum)

MORPHOLOGY
Echinacea is a genus of herbaceous perennials growing up to 150 cm (60 cm in E. angustifolia; 90 cm in E. purpurea; 120 cm in E. pallida) in height. The stem, arising from a fusiform (wider in the center and narrowing at the ends) taproot, is green or mottled with purple and green. The leaves are lanceolate or linear-lanceolate with three veins in E. angustifolia and ovate, coarsely toothed, with basal ones often cordate in E. purpurea. Two types of flowers, ray florets and disc florets, are aggregated in a conical flower head (known as capitulum) up to 10 cm in diameter and with spiny projections of the receptacle scales on the surface. The ray florets (with long purplish strap-like petals; white petals in ‘White Swan’ cultivar of E. purpurea), which are 8-21 in number, are arranged on the periphery of the head, while the disc florets (approximately 200-300 in number) occupy the central area. The fruits, known as cypselae, are 3-4-angled, tan or bicolored with dark brown bands and have a distal crown of persistent pappi with teeth.

Echinacea purpurea ‘White Swan’

Purple coneflowers (Echinacea purpurea) blooming at Jakhoo Temple

CULTIVATION

Coneflowers are beautiful seasonal flowering plants for gardens. They can be propagated through seeds, which can be sown in September or October or the seeds can be stratified during the winter and sown in February. In colder parts of India, flowering starts in June and continues till September. The vegetative propagation is generally done through the division of the basal clumps into smaller bunches during the spring or autumn.

Two cultivar of Echinacea purpurea growing in a flower bed

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Major chemical constituents in the roots are echinacoside, cynarin, cichoric acid, arabinogalactan, rhamnoarabinogalactan, xyloglucan, inulin, fructans, heteroxylan, alkylamides, borneol, bornylacetate, pentadeca-8-en-2-one, vanillin, p-hydroxycinnamic acid methyl ester, germacrene D, dimethyl sulfide, 2- and 3-methylbutanal, 2-propanal, 2-methylpropanal, acetaldehyde, camphene, limonene, caryophyllene, caryophyllene epoxide, palmitic acid and glycine betaine.

The aerial parts contain α-phellandrene, β-myrcene, α- and β-pinene, limonene, camphene, trans-ocimene, 3-hexen-1-ol, 2-methyl-4-pentenal, chlorogenic acid, rutoside, luteolin, kaempferol, quercetin, quercetagetin-7-glucoside, luteolin-7-glucoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside, apigenin and isorhamnetin.

Young flower heads

MEDICINAL USES

Dr. James A. Duke, an American botanist and an author of many publications on botanical medicine, has kept this plant in high esteem and suggested its use in curing many ailments. All parts of this plant are used as medicine. However, dried roots find predominant use in the herbal industry. In case of E. purpurea, dried tops or fresh flowering herbage are generally used. Some of the medicinal uses of Echinacea spp. are listed below: 

1.   For Cold and Flu: Root extract of E. angustifolia, E. purpurea and E. pallida is used to treat cold and flu-like diseases by North American and European herbalists for centuries. A recent double-blind, placebo-controlled study has proved that ethanolic extract of E. purpurea significantly relieves the severity and duration of cold and flu-like symptoms.

2.   Antioxidant Activity: Root extract has been reported to have anti-oxidant properties due to the presence of a large number of phytochemicals present. Caffeoyl derivatives such as echinacoside and cynarine are capable of scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other free radicals. An extract of E. purpurea is reported to upregulate the serum superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity resulting in an enhanced antioxidant effect.

3.   Stimulation of the Immune System: Extracts of Echinacea species have been reported to stimulate the immune system in a nonspecific manner through an overall increase in phagocytosis by macrophages and granulocytes. High molecular weight polysaccharides from an aqueous extract stimulated T-lymphocyte activity by 20-30% as compared to a potent T-cell stimulator. Immunomodulation is reported to be a combined action of several phytoconstituents including alkylamides and cichoric acid.

4.   Anti-Inflammatory Activity: Alkamides present in E. angustifolia and E. purpurea induce a strong anti-inflammatory activity by downregulating the seminal microsomal cyclooxygenase and porcine leukocyte 5-lipooxygenase activity.

5.   Wound Healing: The expressed juice from fresh flowering tops of E. purpurea has been reported to heal the wounds by promoting the formation of mesenchymal mucopolysaccharides, stimulating histogenic and haematogenic phagocytes, through differentiation of fibrocytes from fibroblasts and by stimulating the anterior pituitary-adrenal cortex. This activity is primarily attributed to four caffeoyl acid esters (cynarine, chicoric, caftaric and chlorogenic acids).

6.   Bacteriostatic and Fungistatic Activities: The plant extracts are reported to have anti-bacterial (against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and anti-fungal (against Trichomonas vaginalis, Epidermophyton interdigitale, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida spp.) activity due to the presence of polyacetylenes and alkamides.

7.   Anti-Viral Activity: Anti-viral activity, primarily due to the presence of alkamide constituents, has been reported against influenza, herpes, and poliovirus.

Echinacea as Homeopathic Medicines (Photograph source: Internet)

COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Extracts, capsules, tablets, tea, tinctures, ointment, etc.

CAUTION

Most of the studies report Echinacea as ‘safe’ for most people when used for a short duration. However, some people may develop stomachache, constipation, diarrhoea or vomiting. Some people have a tendency to allergic reactions to members of the Aster family and may suffer from acute asthma and urticaria. It is not recommended for pregnant women, lactating mothers and young children as sufficient pieces of evidence are not available. As this plant has immunomodulatory properties, it may worsen the conditions of persons suffering from auto-immune disorders such as multiple sclerosis, lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis.

NOTE: This information is only for knowledge. Do not use herbal medicines without a prescription by a medical practitioner.

FURTHER READING

1. Armstrong, D. (2001). Herbs That Work. Ulysses Press, Berkeley.
2. Barnes, J., Anderson, L.A. and Phillipson, J.D. (2007). Herbal Medicine. Pharmaceutical Press, London, UK.
3. Capasso, F., Gaginella, T.S., Grandolini, G. and Izzo, A.A. (2003). Phytotherapy: A Quick Reference to Herbal Medicine. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
4. Duke, A. (1999). Dr. Duke’s Essential Herbs. Rodale Books, Pennsylvania.
5. Gladstar, R. (2014). Herbs for Common Ailments. Storey Publishing, Maryland, USA.
6. Karch, S.B. (1999). The Consumers Guide to Herbal Medicine. Advanced Research Press, New York.
7. Kunkele, U. and Lohmeyer, T.R. (2007). Herbs for Healthy Living. Paragon Books, Bath, UK.
   
   
   

Lesser Cardamom: The Queen of Spices

Capsules of lesser cardamom or chhoti elaichi

 

Botanical name: Elettaria cardamomum

English names: Cardamom, Cardamon, Malabar cardamom, Ceylon cardamom, Lesser cardamom

Indian names: Elaichi, Chhoti elaichi (Hindi, Punjabi, Gujrati, Marathi, Urdu), Trutih (Sanskrit), Elatarri (Malayalam), Elam Ancha (Tamil), Elaki (Telugu)

Family: Zingiberaceae

Chromosome No:  2n = 48, 50, 52

Plants bearing capsular fruits on a panicled infructescence arising from the rhizomes

(Photograph courtesy: Sh. Thilak Makkiseril, Kochi, Kerala) 

Cardamom, also known as the Queen of Spices, is one of the most expensive (after vanilla and saffron) spices in the world. Commercially used parts are fruit and seeds. It is a spice of choice with large number of medicinal and culinary uses. There are two varieties of E. cardamomum i.e. E. cardamomum var. major (wild) and E. cardamomum var. minor (cultivated).

Origin and Distribution

Cardamom is a native to Kerala, Karnataka and the forests of the Western Ghats of Southwestern India. It is widely cultivated in India, Guatemala and Sri Lanka. Now, Guatemala is the largest producer and exporter of cardamom in the world, followed by India.

Plantations of lesser cardamom forming an archway

(Photograph courtesy: Sh. Thilak Makkiseril, Kochi, Kerala) 

Morphology

Cardamom is a robust perennial herb growing in thick clumps and reaching up to 3 m tall. A large number of erect leafy shoots (composed of the leaf sheaths) arise from the branched rhizomes.  The flowering shoots also arise from the rhizomes, but are decumbent. The leaves are distichous, with sheathing bases and together form the pseudostem. The leaf blade is lanceolate, 25-100 cm × 5-15 cm in size and with acuminate apex. It is dark green and glabrous above and light green and pubescent beneath. The inflorescence is a prostrate panicle, up to 1.2 m long. The flowers are bisexual, zygomorphic, about 4 cm long with tubular and green calyx. The corolla is white with violet streaks, tubular, 3-lobed and forms a labellum. Fruit is a subcylindrical, pale green and trilocular capsule.

Lesser cardamom or chhoti elaichi flower

(Photograph source: Sailesh on Wikipedia) (@ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flower_CardamomP1030443.JPG)

Chemical Constituents

Cardamom fruits (dry) contain 42 % carbohydrates, 10% proteins, 2% fat, , 20% fibre and 6% ash. The seeds of freshly harvested cardamom may contain up to 11% essential oils.  A number of potentially active ingredients are found in the seeds. The most important of them are terpenes, flavonoids and phenylpropanoids. Major consdtituents are α -terpinyl acetate (24-49%),  1,8-cineole (24-38%), linalool (5-6%), linalyl acetate (1-4%), β-pinene (6.2%), limonene (1-4%), eugenol and quercetin.

Developing fruits/capsules of lesser cardamom

(Photograph courtesy: Sh. Thilak Makkiseril, Kochi, Kerala) 

A lesser cardamom nursery in Shimoga, Karnataka

(Photograph courtesy: Sh. Rajendra Hindumane, Shimoga, Karnataka) 

Uses

1.    As Spice: Cardamom is extensively used for flavouring curries, teas and drinks.

2. Medicinal Uses: Many medicinal uses have been reported for cardamom. Cardamom is reported to reduce chronic inflammation and boost antioxidant activity. It lowers blood pressure and cholesterol level and improves the heart health. Cardamom improves the liver function, helps in digestive issues and reduce gut discomfort. It has antibacterial and antifungal activity. However, it may trigger a severe allergic reaction in rare cases.

3.    Mouth Freshener: Cardamom is an excellent mouth freshener.

4.    Flavouring of Eatables: Many eatables are flavoured with cardamom. 

References
Thakur, A.K., Bassi, S.K. and Kango, N. 2018. Economic Botany and Biotechnology. S. Dinesh and Co. Ltd., Jalandhar, Punjab.

ASHWAGANDHA: A HERBAL FOR MEMORY, STRESS, FERILITY & INFLAMATION

Botanical name: Withania somnifera 

(Etymology: Withania- on the name of English botanist, Henry Thomas Maire Witham; somnifera- sleep-inducing, referring to narcotic properties of the plant)

English names: Ashwagandha, Indian Ginseng, Poison Gooseberry, Winter Cherry

Indian names: Ashwagandha (Hindi, Marathi), Ashwagandha, Asgandh (Sanskrit), Amukkuram (Tamil), Vajigandha (Telegu), Kanchuki (Kannada), Ghodaasun (Gujrati), Amukkuram (Malayalam)

Family: Solanaceae

Chromosome No: 2n= 48 (x= 12)

Withania somnifera, commonly known as ashwagandha, is an important medicinal plant used in many Ayurvedic preparations. The roots (rarely berries) of this plant are used to prepare many different herbal medicines. It is native to the drier parts of India and can be seen growing naturally up to an altitude of 1,500 m. The Indian name, ashwagandha, is derived from the strong horse-like odour of the root.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Withania somnifera is a perennial undershrub. The stem is branched, and reaches about 1.5 m in height. All plant parts are covered with velvety and stellate tomentum. The branches are flexuous, terete and extend radially from the main stem. The leaves are dull green, elliptic, and usually up to 10-12 cm long. The flowers are small, greenish and bell-shaped. Fruit is a berry that remains covered with persistent papery sepals. Fruits are green initially but turn orange after ripening.

TRADITIONAL USES

Ashwagandha is used in Indian traditional systems of medicine for more than  4000 years. The roots, leaves, and fruits (berry) are reported to possess tremendous medicinal value. Many Ayurvedic rejuvenating preparations use ashwagandha as their key ingredient. It is supposed to help in maintaining proper nourishment of the muscles and bones. It is considered useful in maintaining the proper functioning of the adrenals and reproductive system.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

The roots contain essential oils, alkaloids and steroidal compounds. The steroidal compounds include the lactones Withaferin A and carbon-27-glycowithanolide (collectively known as the Withanolides). The Withanolides are responsible for the medicinal properties of ashvagandha. The main alkaloids include tropine, pseudotropine, isopelletrine, anaferine, somniferene, withanine and saponins, which are also active principles in this plant. Alkaloid percentage in roots ranges from 0.13 to 0.31%.

USE IN MODERN MEDICINE

Ashwagandha is used in many herbal drug preparations for tonic, arthritis, anxiety, insomnia, asthma, bronchitis, backache, fibromyalgia, menstrual problems, hiccups, and chronic liver diseases. The root powder is considered a good adaptogen to help the body cope with daily stress. Recently, it has found its use in drugs for improving thinking ability, brain power, fertility problems in men and women, decreasing pain and swelling (inflammation). Ashwagandha is an integral component of some Ayurvedic drugs such as Abana , Aller-G Care, Ashwagandha capsules, Dia-Beta Plus, Geriforte , Immunol, Joint Aid plus, Male Support Formula, Mentat, Oxitard, Reosto and Tentex forte.

CULTIVATION

Ashwagandha is mostly grown in drier parts in subtropical regions comprising of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. It is propagated through cuttings, division or seeds. Seeds are the best way to propagate them. It can be grown on any kind of soil which is not suitable for other commercial crops.