NEERBRAHMI: A Natural Brain Booster

The human brain is a very intricate structure that serves as a body's control centre. It is responsible for our feelings, ideas, behaviours, and relationships with the outside world. Many plants are known to control our brain responses in various ways by altering various neural pathways and chemicals and may enhance memory or cause sedation and intoxication. Many plants such as Bacopa (Bacopa monnieri), Gotu kola (Centella asiatica), Walnut (Juglans regia), Maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba) Rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea), Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), etc. are reported to be useful for retention of cognition or for enhancing our memory, focus and adaptogenic response. Bacopa, known as Neerbrahmi in Hindi, is one of the best medicinal herbs used in traditional Ayurvedic medicine for brain related problems. It is widely used for improving memory, focus and reducing anxiety. Bacopa, botanically known as Bacopa monnieri, is a member of the Plantain family (Plantaginaceae) of flowering plants.

 

NAMES IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES

• English: Brahmi, Herb of grace, Indian pennywort, Thyme-leaved gratiola, Water hyssop • Hindi: Neerbrahmi, Brahmi, Jalbuti, Jalnim • Sanskrit: Brahmi, Tiktalonika • Assamese: Brahmi • Bengali: Brahmisaka • Gujarati: Baam, Brahmi, Jalanevari, Kadavi luni • Kannada: Brahmi, Jala brahmi, Niru brahmi • Malayalam: Brahmi • Marathi Brahmi, Jalabrahmi, Nirbrahmi • Oriya: Brahmi, Prusni parnni • Tamil: Nir-p-pirami, Piramiyam, Taray • Telugu: Sambrani aku (Source: Flowers of India Website)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bacopa is widely distributed in wetlands and muddy areas of Tropical and Subtropical parts of the world.

 

MORPHOLOGY

Bacopa is a perennial creeping herb with branches growing up to 50 cm long.  The glabrous branches are succulent and frequently root at nodes. Leaves are opposite, sessile, oblong-oblanceolate, 0.8-2 cm X 3-6 mm in size and succulent. Leaf margin is entire or rarely dentate and has rounded apex. Flowers are mostly white or sometimes purplish in colour and are arranged singly in the leaf axils. Sepals are 5, lanceolate to linear in shape  and pale green in colour. Petals are 5, mostly white or rarely purplish, 8-10 mm in size and obscurely 2-lipped. Fruit is a narrowly ovoid capsule enveloped in persistent sepal-cup.  Seeds are yellow-brown in colour and ellipsoid in shape.

 

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Fifty-two bioactive phytochemicals have been isolated from bacopa which include saponins, alcohols, steroids, alkaloids, glycosides, sterol glycosides, phenylethanoid glycosides, sugars, flavonoids,  cucurbitacins, and amino acids. Bacoside A & B (tetracyclic triterpenoid saponins) are the most bioactive components of Bacopa monnieri and play essential roles in brain health. Bacoside A (most effective) contains four saponin glycosides viz. bacopaside II, bacopaside X, bacoside A3 and bacopasaponin C, while Bacosides B varies in optical rotation only with bacoside A and consists of bacopaside IV, V, N1 and N2.

 

MEDICINAL USES

 

(Photograph source: Amazon India)

1. As a Nervine Tonic

In Ayurveda, bacopa is considered as a nervine tonic that enhances memory, learning and reasoning. It is also used for treating neurological conditions such as epilepsy and insanity. Recently, this has also been proved through scientific experimentation on different laboratory animals.

2. Useful in Parkinson’s Disease

Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative neurological disorder characterized by progressive degeneration of nerve cells. Bacopa is reported to exhibit decreased aggregation of α-synuclein protein and prevent dopaminergic neurodegeneration in animal models (in Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila).

3. Helpful in Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease, characterised by cognitive impairment and dementia,  is caused by the accumulation of β-amyloid peptides in the brain. Bacopa has been reported to suppress the accumulation of β-amyloids in brain in experimental studies and thus helps in memory retention and recovery. In silico studies have shown that Bacopasaponin G and Bacopasaponin N₂ (saponins) might be responsible for the biological activity of bacopa.

 4. Ani-Depressant Activity

Bacopa is shown to exhibit anti-depressant activity in animal models through modulation of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine and GABA.

 5. Anti-Cancer Activity

Bacopa is reported to exhibit anti-tumour activity in animal models. This activity is due to induction of apoptosis, inhibition of cell proliferation and angiogenesis and  modulation of cancer-related signalling pathways.

 6. Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Bacopa is reported to possess anti-inflammatory activity. This property is mediated through inhibition of the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, reduction in the activity of inflammatory enzymes and suppression of immune cell activation.

 7. Anti-Ulcerative Property

Recent studies have shown anti-ulcerative property of bacopa. It increases mucin secretion, enhances mucosal defence factors and promotes healing.

 8. Antioxidant Properties

Bacopa contains many phytochemicals including bacosides. These bioactive phytochemicals have antioxidant potential that helps in protecting against cell damage caused by free radicals.

 9. Sedative Activity

Bacopa possesses sedative properties and thus promotes relaxation and sleep. It is reported to express itself by modulating GABA receptors in the central nervous system.

 

TOXICITY AND SAFETY CONCERNS

Use in moderate quantity (3-5 g daily) is generally safe. In higher doses, it may cause nausea, diarrhoea and gastrointestinal problems.

 

REFERENCES

1. Aguiar S, Borowski T (2013). Neuropharmacological review of the nootropic herb Bacopa monnieri. Rejuvenation Research 6:313–26.
2. Akbar S (2020). Handbook of 200 Medicinal Plants: A Comprehensive Review of Their Traditional Medical Uses and Scientific Justifications. Springer.
3. Bhattacharya SK, Ghosal S (1998). Anxiolytic activity of a standardized extract of Bacopa monnieri: an experimental study. Phytomedicine 5:77-82.
4. Dhanasekaran M, Tharakan B, Holcomb LA (2007). Neuroprotective mechanisms of ayurvedic antidementia botanical Bacopa monnieri. Phytotherapy Research 21:965-969.
5. Fatima U, Roy S, Ahmad S, Ali S, Elkady WM, Khan I, Alsaffar, MI,  Adnan M, Islam A and Hassan MI (2022). Pharmacological attributes of Bacopa monnieri extract: Current updates and clinical manifestation. Frontiers in Nutrition 9:972379. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.972379
6. Jeyasri R, Muthuramalingam P, Suba V, Ramesh M and Chen J-T (2020). Bacopa monnieri and Bioactive Compounds Inferred Multi-Target Treatment strategy for Neurological Diseases: A Cheminformatics and System Pharmacology Approach. Biomolecules 10: 536; doi:10.3390/biom10040536
7. Nishanth  BJ,  Vijayababu  P, and  Kurian  NK  (2023).  Bacopa  monnieri  Extract  as a  Neuroprotective  and Cognitive  Enhancement Agent.  International  Journal  of  Drug  Discovery  and  Pharmacology  2(4): https://doi.org/10.53941/ijddp.2023.100015.
8. Rohini G, Devi CS (2008). Bacopa monnieri extract induces apoptosis in murine sarcoma cells (S-180). Phytotherapy Research 22:1595–1598.
9. Russo A, Borrelli F (2005). Bacopa monnieri, a reputed nootropic plant: an overview. Phytomedicine12:305-317.
10. Sharma S, Sonkar K, Singh V, Roy A and Ghotekar S (2021). Bacosides: a pharmaceutically important compound. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences  91: 753–759.

CHEBULIC MYROBALAN: An Elixir of Ayurveda

Chebulic myrobalan tree with fruits

CHEBULIC MYROBALAN

Chebulic myrobalan or Harar is one of the most used plants in Indian systems of medicine including Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Sowa Rigpa. It has been used in traditional medicine for treating a large number of diseases since time immemorial. Chebulic myrobalan, botanically known as Terminalia chebula, belongs to the Rangoon creeper family (Combretaceae) of flowering plants. Chebulic myrobalan or Harar is also known as the “King of Plants in Ayurveda” due to its broad range of medicinal uses. One of its names 'pranada' translates into 'life giver'. 

Fruit morphotypes collected from various parts of Himachal Pradesh
(Photograph courtesy: Dr. Vipan Guleria, Associate Director, RHRS, Jachh, Dist. Kangra, HP)

COMMON NAMES

English: Chebulic myrobalan, Yellow myrobalan, Black myrobalan, Myrobalan Hindi: Harad, Harara, Haritiki Punjabi: Harar, Halela Assamese: Hilika, Shilikha Bengali: Haritaki Gujarati: Harde, Hardi Kannada: Alale, Alile, Anale, Anile, Karaka, Hareetaki, Harade Konkani: Ordo Malayalam: Katukka Marathi: Hirad, Hirda Nepali: Hararo Oriya: Karedha Sanskrit: Kayastha, Jivapriya, Haritak, Pranada,  Tamil: Katu-k-kay Telugu: Nallakaraka, Karaka Urdu: Haejarad

 

Umbrella-shaped tree of chebulic myrobalan growing in Patanjali Research Institute, Haridwar

DISTRIBUTION

Chebulic myrobalan occurs in Southern and Southeast Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Thailand) and Yunnan province of China up to an altitude of 900 m.

 

Inflorescence

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Chebulic myrobalan is a large-sized tree growing to a height of up to 30 meters.  The canopy is umbrella-shaped with crowded branches. The stem bark is dark brown and irregularly exfoliating. The leaves are alternate to sub-opposite, ovate or oblong-ovate, 8–20 cm long, and deciduous during winters. The leaf tip is acute, base cordate, margin entire and they are glabrous above and pubescence below. Flowering occurs in May-June. Flowers are minute, yellowish-white and emit an unpleasant odour. They are arranged in long terminal spikes or short panicles. The fruit is yellowish green, obovoid or ellipsoid, hard and ribbed drupe. The seed is globose, 2–6 cm long and pale yellow in colour. 

Fruit morphotype from Pragpur (Kangra) in H.P.

(Photograph courtesy: Dr. Vipan Guleria, Associate Director, RHRS, Jachh, Dist. Kangra, HP)

Fruit morphotype from Bilaspur in H.P.

(Photograph courtesy: Dr. Vipan Guleria, Associate Director, RHRS, Jachh, Dist. Kangra, HP)

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Fruits of chebulic myrobalan, which are economically important parts, contain many phytochemicals. Important  secondary phytoconstituents are  pyrogallol, catechin, quercetin, kaempferol, terflavin A, B, C, D, maslinic acid, galloyl glucose, ellagic acid, luteolin, rutins, sennoside, terchebin, maslinic acid, chebulagic acid, tannic acid, chebulic acid, chebulinic acid, punicalagin, corilagin, terchebulin, chebulanin, gallotannins, neo-chebulinic acid, chebulosides II and I, etc.

 

MEDICINAL USES

1. Improves Digestion

Chebulic myrobalan improves digestion by increasing the production of digestive enzymes, promoting regular bowel movements, cleansing of the digestive tract and promoting the absorption of nutrients. It is reported to reduce bloating in the abdomen. It also helps to reduce symptoms of indigestion such as heartburn, nausea and vomiting.

Dry fruits of chebulic myrobalan
(Photograph source: Amazon India)

2. Anti-Diabetic 

Diabetes mellitus (Type 2) is a major lifestyle health issue of concern these days. The herbal decoction containing chebulic myrobalan and other medicinal plants (Syzygium cumini, Trigonella foenumgraecum, etc.) was reported to improve the glycaemic and lipid index in diabetic patients by improving insulin sensitivity.

3. Excellent Antioxidant

Natural antioxidants are essentially required by the human body to prevent oxidative damage induced by higher levels of free radicals, which otherwise can cause degenerative disorders, ageing and cancers. Various phytochemicals present in the fruits of chebulic myrobalan have excellent antioxidant properties.

4. Anti-Inflammatory 

Fruits of chebulic myrobalan have been reported to possess anti-inflammatory properties. Phytochemicals in fruits reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines and T-cell subpopulations in lymph nodes.  Chebulanin acid ameliorates the severity of inflammatory disease arthritis by downregulating inflammatory cytokines and inflammation-induced enzymes.

5. Anti-Microbial 

Fruit extract of chebulic myrobalan has been reported to have antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella epidermis,  Clostridium perfingens, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus mutans, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis). It also exhibits a reasonably good anti-fungal activity. It is also reported to have anti-viral activity against Influenza A virus and Herpes simplex virus.

A tree laden with fruits in Patanjali Research Institute, Haridwar

6. Anti-Cancer 

Cancer is an uncontrolled division of the cells leading to the development of tumours. Phenolics such as ellagic, tannic, chebulinic acids and 2,4- chebulyl-β-D glucopyranose in fruits of chebulic myrobalan have inhibitory effect cancer cell lines (breast cancer cell line (MCF-7), prostate cancer cell line (PC-3), osteosarcoma (HOS1),  etc.).

7. Neuro-Protective 

Ageing, inflammation and lifestyle are responsible for some degenerative changes in the brain cells. Fruit extract of chebulic myrobalan is reported to slow down these degenerative changes by regulating the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide. Alzheimer’s disease, a neuro-degenerative disorder, is linked with acetylcholine (Ach) deficiency caused by acetylcholinesterase (AChE).  Ellagic, tannic and gallic acids present in chebulic myrobalan have been reported to downregulate the production of AChE and thus delay these degenerative changes. It is also reported to improve mental clarity and focus.

8. Hepatoprotective 

Chebulinic acid, chebulic acid and neo-chebulic acid present in chebulic myrobalan are reported to possess strong hepatoprotective activity in animal models. These phytochemicals operate by downregulating aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and by upregulating superoxide dismutase (SOD) action.

9. Good for Cardiovascular Health

Chebulic myrobalan is reported to support cardiovascular health by reducing serum cholesterol levels and improving blood circulation.

10.  Anti-Aging Properties

Fruits of chebulic myrobalan are believed to have anti-ageing properties due to their antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities.

11.  Nephroprotective Effect

Some experimental studies have shown the nephroprotective effect of chebulic myrobalan in toxin-induced nephrotoxicity.

SACRED VALUE
Chebulic myrobalan is considered sacred by the Hindus.  It is believed that when Indra was drinking nectar in heaven, a drop of that nectar fell on the Earth.  It sprouted as a haritaki tree. It has also received the names of 'pranada' or life-giver, 'Sudha' or nectar, 'Bhishakpriya' or physician's 

TOXICITY

Chebulic myrobalan fruits are generally considered safe when taken in moderate quantities.  However, it can cause gastrointestinal disturbances in higher doses. Persons taking medication for diabetes should monitor their blood sugar level regularly as chebulic myrobalan might cause blood sugar to drop too low.

 

A tree laden with fruits in Patanjali Research Institute, Haridwar

REFERENCES

1. Akbar, S. 2020. Handbook of 200 Medicinal Plants: A Comprehensive Review of Their Traditional Medical Uses and Scientific Justifications. Springer.
2. Bennet, S.S.R., Gupta, P.C., and Rao, R.V. 1992. Venerated Plants. Indian Council of Forestry Education and Research, Dehradun.
3. Cock, IE. 2015. The Medicinal Properties and Phytochemistry of Plants of the Genus Terminalia (Combretaceae). Inflammopharmacology 23(5): 203–229.
4. Gopi, KS, Reddy, AG, Jyothi, K and Kumar, BA. 2010. Acetaminophen-induced Hepato-and Nephrotoxicity and Amelioration by Silymarin and Terminalia chebula in Rats. Toxicol. Int. 17(2): 64. DOI: 10.4103/0971-6580.72672.
5. Meher, SK, Panda, P, Das, B, Bhuyan, GC and Rath, KK. 2018. Pharmacological Profile of Terminalia Chebula Retz. and Willd. (Haritaki) in Ayurveda with Evidences. Res. J. Pharmacol. Pharmacodyn. 10(3): 115–124.
6. Muhammad Junaid Anwar, MJ et al. 2023. Phytochemical profile and pro-healthy properties of Terminalia chebula: A comprehensive review.  International Journal of Food Properties 26(1): 526-551.
7. Upadhyay, A, Agrahari, P and Singh, DK. 2014. A Review on the Pharmacological Aspects of Terminalia Chebula. Int. J. Pharmacol. 10(6): 289–298.

PARIJAT: SHRI KRAISHNA'S TREE FROM HEAVEN

 

Since archiac period, plants have been used for their therapeutic properties by all the major civilizations. These medicinally significant plants were also part of many traditions and rituals due to their ability to promote spiritual well-being in addition to their healing properties. One such highly medicinal and sacred plant is Parijat. The divine Parijat has an unending list of health benefits and is associated with many mythological stories in India. This enigmatic plant blooms at night and as the first rays of the Sun fall on the earth, its beautiful sweet-scented flowers start dropping on the ground (consequently named night-falling jasmine). Some people refer to it as a tree that can fulfil all your wishes. Scientifically known as Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Parijat belongs to the Jasmine family (Oleaceae). It is the state flower of West Bengal.

 

COMMON NAMES

English: Coral jasmine, Night-blooming jasmine, Queen of the night, Tree of sorrow (because the foliage becomes droopy as blooming flowers fall off during early morning), Tree of sadness Hindi: Harsingar, Naipali, Newari, Nilika, Nishi-pushpa, Prajakta, Shiphalika Punjabi: Haar-singaar, Laduri, Pakura, Sital Sanskrit: Atyuha, Masika, Nilaka, Nishipushpa, Parijata, Rangalasini, Rajanihasa, Ranjana, Raktavrnta, Shiphalika, Shitamanjari, Shuklangi, Shvetasurasa Assamese: Nixipuspa, Pani-pipoli, Parijat Bengali: Harsinghar, Shephalika, Shiuli Gujarati: Harshangar, Parijatak Kannada: Havalamallige, Parijata Malayalam: Paarijaatham, Pavizhamalli Marathi: Parijatak, Prajakta, Shivali Odia: Atyuha, Gaurdagardaka, Naipali, Nilaka, Nishipushpa, Parijata, Rajani Hasa, Ranjani, Shephali, Sita nirgundi, Siuli Tamil: Cetal, Cuputpam, Cutam, Kaccantakarai, Mancat-pu, Paricatam, Pavala-mallikai, Tukir-t-tali Telugu: Bandeda, Pagadapu Jitta, Parijatamu, Shephali Urdu: Har-singar, Kesar, Naipali, Newari, Nilika, Nishi-pushpa, Shiphalika Source: Names of Plants in India

 

DISTRIBUTION

Parijat is native to India, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Jawa, Laos, Nepal, Sumatera, Thailand and Vietnam up to 1000m. However, it has also been introduced in other parts of the world.

MORPHOLOGY

Parijat is a large shrub or a small-sized tree growing up to a height of up to 10 m. The young branches are quadrangular and greyish-green, while the old ones are round in outline and have grey bark. Leaves are simple, opposite decussate, up to 10 cm long and 5 cm broad, leathery and covered with stiff white hair. Flowering takes place during the  months of August to October. Flowers are pleasantly fragrant. They are white with orange centres and are  arranged in 3-7 flowered pedunculate heads. The Corolla tube is approximately 1 cm long, orange-red with spreading lobes. Fruit is a cordate or suborbicular capsule.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Parijat contains hundreds of secondary metabolite phytoconstituents distributed in leaves, bark, stem, flowers and fruits. Some of these phytochemicals are biologically active and medicinally important. Leaves contain tannic acid, ascorbic acid, methyl salicylate, D-mannitol, β-sitosterole, astragaline, nicotiflorin, oleanolic acid, nyctanthic acid, carotene, friedeline, lupeol, mannitol, glucose, fructose, iridoid glycosides, benzoic acid, etc. Flowers contain essential oils, α-pinene, p-cymene, 1- hexanol methyl heptanone, phenyl acetaldehyde, 1-deconol, anisaldehyde, nyctanthin, D-mannitol, tannin, glucose, carotenoid, glycosides, etc. Seeds are rich in arbortristoside A & B, glycerides of linoleic oleic, lignoceric, stearic, palmitic and myristic acids, nyctanthic acid, 3-4 secotriterpene acid. Stem contains glycosides, β-sitosterol and alkaloidal nyctanthine.

USES

I.       MEDICINAL USES

1.     Useful in Intermittent Fever

Parijat has excellent antipyretic properties. Leaf and bark extract is recommended for fevers.

2.     Beneficial in Sciatica

In Ayurveda, Parijat (10-20 ml leaf extract) is considered beneficial in sciatic pain as it balances three doshas of the human body.

3.     Anti-Allergic Activity

All parts of Parijat are used for allergic disorders in Ayurveda. Alcoholic extract of the plant was reported to inhibit passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) in experimental animals. It was reported to be as potent as standard drugs used for alleviating allergy and bronchial asthma. Mast cell stabilizing effect and anti-allergic potential of this plant can be attributed to the presence of phytochemical constituents arbortristoside A & C.

4.     Useful in Diabetes

Leaf powder is recommended to cure diabetes and maintain healthy blood glucose levels.

5.     Cures Arthritis

Parijat leaves are recommended as a herbal remedy for reducing pain associated with arthritis.

(Photo source: Patanjali Ayurved)

6.     Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Recent experimental studies on animal models have shown that flavonoids and β-sitosterol present in Parijat inhibit mediators like prostaglandins and exert an anti-inflammatory effect.

7.     Analgesic Activity

Parijat exhibits analgesic activity in experimental animals by inhibiting the pain mediators like prostaglandins.

8.     Antioxidant Activity

High phenolics and flavonoid contents in Parijat leaves and flowers make it a good antioxidant with free radical scavenging potential.

9.     Management of Cholesterol

Parijat is reported to decrease the total cholesterol and triglyceride levels in blood serum.

10. Immunostimulant

Flowers and leaves of Parijat are reported to exhibit immuno-stimulant effects through activation of cell-mediated and humoral immune responses. Aqueous extract of flowers has also shown promising effects on the induction of cytokines and proliferation of splenocytes in Swiss albino mice and Wistar rats.

11. Antiviral Effect

Phytochemicals Arbortristoside A and C have shown remarkable cytopathogenic effects against Encephalomyocarditis and Semliki Forest viruses in experimental studies.

12. Anthelmintic Activity

In experimental studies involving model worm Pheretima posthuman,  acetone extract of the leaves shows a dose-dependent anthelmintic activity.

13. Anti-Leishmanial Activity

Parijat is reported to exhibit significant activity against Leishmania donovani. Anti-leishmanial activity has been attributed to the presence of arbortristosides A, B, and C and 6-β-hydroxyloganin in this plant.

14. Antibacterial Activity

In various experimental studies,  the antibacterial efficacy of leaf extract has been reported against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia and Staphylococcus epidermidis.

15. Hepatoprotective Activity

Parijat is reported to possess hepatoprotective action by inhibiting the reactive oxygen species and normalizing the liver's biochemical parameters.

16. Uses in Homoeopathy

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis is used for treating bilious problems, obstinate remittent fever, irritation in eyes, sciatica pains and rheumatism in Homeopathy.

SAFETY

Parijat is considered safe when used in small quantities (14). The crude extract has been found to be safe with an LD₅₀ of 16gm/kg body weight (1). 

II.                WOOD POLISHING

Leaves of Parijat are used for polishing wood. 

III.             SOURCE OF A NATURAL DYE

An orange-red coloured natural dye is obtained from the corolla tube of Parijat. 

IV.           SACRED USES

Parijat is considered a divine tree by the Hindus. It is associated with Lord Shri Krishna, the 'Kanha of Gopis'. The legends say that Shri Krishna brought the Parijat tree from the heaven of Indra Dev and planted it in the courtyard of Satyabhama to placate her. Despite having the tree in her courtyards, the flowers of the tree used to fall into the adjacent backyard of Rukmini, the favourite wife of Shri Krishna. Parijat flowers are offered to the goddess Durga at the festival of Durga Puja in West Bengal. Many Durga puja songs and poems have references to this flower.

 REFERENCES 

1.     Agarwal J and Pal A (2013). Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn--a critical ethnopharmacological review. J. Ethnopharmacology 146(3):645-58.

2.     Gulshan B, Suri KA and Parul G (2015). A comprehensive review on Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. Int. J. Drug Dev. Res. 7(1): 183-193.

3.     Gupta P, Bajpai SK, Chandra K, Singh KL and Tandon JS (2005). Antiviral profile of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. against encephalitis causing viruses. Indian J Exp Biol. 43(12):1150-1160.

4.     Hukkeri V I, Akki K S, Sureban R R, Gopalakrishna B, Byahatti V V and Rajendra S V (2006). Hepatoprotective activity of the leaves of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 68(4): 542-543.

5.     Jain PK and Pandey A (2016). The wonder of Ayurvedic medicine—Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. Int. J. Herbal Med. 4(4): 9–17.

6.     Khare CP (2007). Indian Medicinal Plants: An Illustrated Dictionary. Springer Science+BusinessMedia, LLC.

7.     Khatune NA, Mossadik MA and Haque ME (2001). Antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis flowers. Fitoterapia. 72(4): 412-414.

8.     Mahinda Y and Mohan JSS (2007). Screening of plants for their potential antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus and Salmonella spp. Natural Product Radiance 6(4): 301-305.

9.     Pattanayak C and Datta PP (2013). Analgesic activity of Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis leaves in rodents. J. Complement Med. Res. 2(2): 105-112.

10. Puri A, Saxena AR, Saxena RP, Saxena KC, Srivastava V and Tandon JS (1994). Immunostimulant activity of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis J. Ethnopharmacology 42(1): 31-37.

11. Rangika BS, Dayananda PD and Peiris DC (2015). Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activities of aqueous extract of flowers from Nyctanthes arbor-tristis in male mice. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15: 289.

12. Rani C, Chawla S, Mangal M, Mangal, AK, Kajla S and Dhawan AK (2011). Nyctanthes arbor-tristis linn. (Night jasmine): A sacred ornamental plant with immense medicinal potential. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 11(3): 427-435.

13. Saxena RS, Gupta B and Lata S (2002). Tranquilizing, antihistaminic and purgative activity of Nyctanthes arbor tristis leaf extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 81(3): 321-325.

14. Sharma A, Goel A and Lin Z (2023). Analysis of anti-rheumatic activity of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis via in vivo and pharmacovigilance approaches. Front. Pharmacol. 14:1307799.

15. Suresh V and Senthilkumar N (2018). Evaluation of antidiabetic activity of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research 5(3): 295-300.

16. Tandon JS, Srivastava V and Guru PY (1991). Iridoids: A new class of leishmanicidal agents from Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. Journal of Natural Products 54(4): 1102-1104.