FOXTAIL MILLET: HEALTH BENEFITS OF A CLIMATE RESILIENT CROP

 

The world is celebrating 2023 as the International Year of Millets (IYM2023). Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has recognized 2023 as IYM2023 for creating awareness about the health and nutritional benefits of millets on the proposal of India. Millets are a diverse group of small-grained (seeded) dryland cereals from the grass family (Poaceae, earlier known as Graminae). They include pearl, proso, foxtail, barnyard, little, kodo, brown top, finger, fonio, sorghum, and guinea millets. Foxtail millet (named due to bushy, tail-like appearance of its immature panicles), botanically known as Setaria italica, is one of the world’s oldest crops. It was domesticated in Northern China approximately 8700 years ago and spread to India and other countries of the world later. Now, it is cultivated in drier parts of the world as it is a climate resilient crop.

Dried Panicles

Indian Names
Hindi: Kangni, Kankun, Tangun
Sanskrit: Kangni, Priyangu, Kanguk, Sukumar, Asthisbandhan
Marathi: Kangu, Kaun, Raal
Gujrati: Kaang
Tamil: Tinni
Bengali: Kaun, Kaakni, Kaanidhan, Kangni daana




PLANT MORPHOLOGY

An Inflorescence

Foxtail millet is an annual grass cultivated for its edible grains and as fodder. Stem, known as culm, are erect, robust, up to 150 cm tall and have 5–7-nodes. Leaves are strap-shaped and divided into leaf blade and leaf sheath. The outer margin of leaf-sheath is hairy. Leaf-blades are flat, 8-45 cm long and 5-20 mm wide. Margins of leaf-blade are cartilaginous and scaberulous. Inflorescence is a panicle. Panicle is spiciform, linear or oblong, 5-30 cm long and 0.8–2.4 cm wide. Primary panicle branches are accrescent and villous. Spikelets are subtended by involucre. Fertile spikelets are mostly 2-flowered, comprising of 1 upper fertile floret and sterile lower floret. Fruit is a grain with adherent pericarp. It is ellipsoid or orbicular, dorsally compressed and 1.5–2 mm long.

Discussion on Millets with Millet man of India Padma Shree Nek Ram Sharma Ji in his village in District Mandi (H.P.)

Harvesting of Foxtail Millet

USES

1. EDIBLE USES

Foxtail millet is a part of the diet in the Asian countries since antiquity. It can be cooked similar to rice or ground into flour and made into porridge, kheer, cakes, puddings etc. The sprouted grains become somewhat sweeter in taste. Foxtail millet is considered a nutritious food (Nutrient composition given below).

 

Nutrient Composition of Foxtail Millet (Kangni)  (Per 100 grams of grains)

Energy: 331-384 Calories  Protein: 10.7-12.3 g; Fat: 3.3-4.3 g; Carbohydrate: 60.9-84.2 g; Fibre: 1.4-8 g  Minerals - Calcium: 37mg; Phosphorus: 275mg; Iron: 6.2mg; Sodium: 8mg; Potassium: 281mg; Thiamine (B1): 0.48mg; Riboflavin (B2): 0.14mg; Niacin: 2.48mg

 

Foxtail Grains

2. HEALTH BENEFITS

1. Management of Diabetes:

Foxtail millet has a low glycemic index (50) as compared to wheat, rice, and maize. It also has high fibre content which is considered good for the digestive system. Due to these reasons, it is considered beneficial for managing diabetes.

2. Lowers Bad Cholesterol:

Foxtail millet contains a good amount of threonine, a lipotropic amino acid. It promotes the export of fat from the liver and its catabolism to produce energy. Another amino acid found in abundance in foxtail millet is methionine which protects the livers from oxidizing substances. Lecithin, mixtures of glycerophospholipids (phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine, and phosphatidic acid), present in foxtail milk also helps in lowering the cholesterol.

3. Makes Bones Stronger:

Foxtail millet is a good source of iron and calcium required for maintaining the health of bones and muscles.

4. Strengthens Nervous System:

The presence of vitamin B1 and phosphatidylcholines present in high quantity in foxtail millets is good for the maintenance of cognitive power.

5. Helpful in Weight Loss:

Tryptophan, an amino acid present in foxtail millet in ample amounts, plays a crucial role in preventing hunger pangs and thus managing healthy weight.

6. Good for Coeliacs

Foxtail millet is non-glutinous and thus beneficial for people with coeliac disease.

CAUTION

Foxtail millet contains anti-nutritional phytochemicals such as phytic acid and tannins. It is advisable to soak the grains in water for 5-6 hours and then boil before use.

LODHRA: A DIVINE HERBAL FOR WOMEN

  

Plants play a significant role in the sustenance of life on Earth. They supply oxygen to breathe in, foods to eat, clothes (cotton) to cover our bodies, beautiful flowers for recreation, and natural therapeutics for human well-being. Human civilization has witnessed many diseases and epidemics during the course of history and was entirely dependent on plants and mineral-based medicines for cures. Many plant species with curative properties have been used in healthcare systems of the world since time immemorial. One such plant with many medicinal properties is Lodhra. The common name Lodhra applies to two different species of Symplocos [S. paniculata (Pattika lodhra) and S. racemosa (Savara lodhra)] occurring in India. The generic name Symplocos is derived from the Greek word symploke, which means inter-connected, and the specific epithet signifies its inflorescence type. Both species are used in Ayurveda for the same treatment, however, Symplocos racemosa is more extensively used in Ayurveda. The bark of this tree was used for making the Tilak (Lodhra means tilak in Sanskrit) mark on the forehead in ancient India which was considered propitious. The only species of this plant that occurs in Northwest Himalaya is Symplocos paniculata.

COMMON NAMES
English name: Sapphire berry or Asiatic Sweetleaf
Sanskrit and Ayurvedic name: Lodhra, Pattika lodhra, Rodhra, Tirita
Hindi name: Lodh
Urdu name: Lodh pathani, Pathani lodh, Balaloddi, Shaabara
Tibetan name: Zhu mkhan (pronounced as Shu khaen)
H.P. name: Loja (Rampur/Sarahan)


Botanical name: Symplocos paniculata
Family: Symplocaceae

DISTRIBUTION

Symplocos paniculata is native to Western Himalaya and Northeast Himalaya in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, China, Inner Mongolia, Japan, Myanmar, Taiwan, and Vietnam. It occurs at an altitudinal range of 1000-2700 m in forests and shrubberies. Symplocos racemosa occurs in Northeast Himalaya in India.

DESCRIPTION

Lodhra is a deciduous shrub or a small-sized tree growing to a height of up to 10 m. The stem is highly branched with soft, friable, light grey-coloured, corky, and transversely fissured bark. Leaves are up to 8 cm in length and up to 4 cm in width. They are elliptic to obovate in shape, rough in texture, with serrate margin and acute apex. Creamy-white flowers are fragrant, 8-10 mm across, and arranged in dense panicles. Sepals are light yellow, hairy outside, 1-1.5 mm in size, and ovate to semi-orbicular in shape. The petals are white, spreading, 3-6 mm across, and oblong-elliptic in shape. Stamens are also white-coloured, 25-60 in number, and protrude out of the petals. Fruit is a one-seeded globular drupe measuring up to 5 mm in diameter. It turns blue or purple in colour at maturity in September-October. Flowering takes place from April to June.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Symplocos racemosa is an extensively studied plant species of Lodhra. Its bark contains alkaloids (loturine, loturidine, colloturine), phenolic glycosides (symplocoside, symploveroside, betasito-glycoside, salireposide, benzoylsalireposide), triterpenoids (betulinic acid, acetyloleanolic acid, oleanolic acid), flavonoids (quercetin), tannins, etc. Symplocos paniculata is reported to contain triterpenoids (ursolic acid, corosolic acid, and 2,3,19,23-tetrahydroxyurs-12-ene-28-oic acid), flavonoids, lignans, steroids, phenols, iridoids, and alkaloids.

MEDICINAL USES

1. Regulation of Female Reproductive Hormones

Lodhra regulates the female reproductive hormones and helps in the well-being of women. Its use normalizes the menstrual cycle and helps in subsiding the excessive abdominal pain and bleeding in dysmenorrhea. It is considered to be a good uterine tonic.

Photo source: Maharishi Ayurveda

2. Cure for Endometriosis

It helps in treating endometriosis (inflammation of the lining of the uterus) in women.

3. Useful in Polycystic Ovarian Disease

It is reported to be useful in curing Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) caused due to hormonal imbalance.

4. Cure for Leucorrhea

Lodhra is considered useful in curing leucorrhea due to its astringent, anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial properties.

5. For Respiratory Problems

Lodhra is used as a traditional remedy for all sorts of respiratory problems due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-biotic, and anti-asthmatic properties. It is considered useful in common cold, sore throat, cough, asthma, and flu.

6. Antioxidant Activity

It is a rich resource of antioxidants due to the presence of phenolic compounds and terpenoids.

7. Antimicrobial Activity

Lodhra bark has a potent antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus, and Salmonella in lab studies due to the presence of flavonoids.

8. Liver Protectant

Many reports consider it to have hepatoprotective and hepato-stimulative properties. It normalizes the liver enzymes and supports normal liver functioning in jaundice.

9. Skin Care

It is considered to have blood-purifying properties which help in removing toxins from the blood. Its antimicrobial properties protect the skin from various types of infections.

10. Management of Diabetes

Lodhra bark powder is reported to activate the pancreatic β-cells to produce insulin in animal models. It slows down the breakdown of starch into glucose and helps in maintaining normal blood glucose levels.

11. Heals Ulcers

The anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial activity of its bark helps in healing the different types of ulcers (ulcerative colitis, peptic ulcer, mouth ulcers).

12. Good for Eye Problems

Due to its anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties, it is considered useful for eye problems like inflammation and infection.

13. Reduces Cholesterol

Ethanolic extract of Lodhra is reported to reduce liver cholesterol levels in animal models. The hypolipidemic activity can be due to the presence of flavonoids, phenolic glycosides, and steroids.

14. Treatment for Gum Problems

Due to its anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties, it reduces swelling and infections of the gums. The astringent property helps to cure bleeding gums.

15. Use in Tibetan Medicine/ Sowa Rigpa

Zhu mkhan is used for treating hot disorders of the lungs and kidney in Tibetan medicine.

FORMULATIONS CONTAINING LODHRA

Lodhra powder, Gynaelix Syrup, Lodhrasavam, Rodharasava, Lodhrasava, Pushyanuga churna, Lodhradi Kwath, etc.

Photo source: Yamuna Pharmacy

CAUTION

Excess intake of Lodhra bark powder can cause nausea, constipation, and gastrointestinal upset. No severe side effects have been reported in the literature.

CULTIVATION

Lodhra can be easily propagated using ripe seeds. Cold stratification enhances the germination percentage. Soaking in water for 24-36 hours before sowing is recommended. The seedlings can be planted in late spring or early summer. It can also be propagated using 7 – 10 cm long stem cuttings of half-ripe wood with a heel. Roots are formed in about a month. Lodhra requires acidic soil and a sunny location for its proper growth.

DISCLAIMER

The information given on the medicinal uses of Lodhra in this Blog is only for awareness and educational purposes. Consult a registered medical practitioner for any health-related issues.

REFERENCES

1. AIMIL (2023). Lodhr. Retreived from:
https://www.aimilpharmaceuticals.com/herbs/lodhr/

2. Chauhan, N.S. (1990). Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Himachal Pradesh. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi.

3. Kamat, S.D. (2018). Studies on Medicinal Plants & Drugs in Bhavprakasha Nighantu. Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan, Delhi.

4. Kapoor, L.D. (2001). Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants. CRC Press LLC.

5. Khare, C. (2007). Indian Medicinal Plants. Springer, New York.

6. Kusuma, G., VijayaKumar, B., Chitra, S. (2018). Symplocos paniculata Miq.: A Review. Int. J. Curr. Res. Biosci. Plant Biol. 5(3): 7-20.

7. Norbu, T. (2016). Encyclopedia of Myriad Herbs: Medicinal Herbs in Tibetan Medical Tradition (Vol. II). Men-Tsee-Khang, Tibetan Medical and Astro Institute, Dharamshala, H.P.

8. PFAF (2023). Symplocos paniculata (Thunb.)Miq. Retreived from:
https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Symplocos+paniculata

9. Semwal, R.B., Semwal D.K., Semwal, R., Singh, R. and Rawat, M.S.M. (2011). Chemical constituents from the stem bark of Symplocos paniculata Thunb. with antimicrobial, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory activities. J. Ethnopharmacology 135: 78–87.

10. TATA 1mg (2023). Lodhra. Retreived from:
https://www.1mg.com/ayurveda/lodhra-145

KANCHNAR: A MULTIPURPOSE TREE

 

Flower and floral buds on a leafless branch

Mountain ebony, one of the most beautiful trees when in flowering, is a native to the Indian subcontinent and China. However, it has been introduced in other parts of the world as well due to its usefulness in several ways. Also known as the orchid tree or camel’s foot tree, it is widely known as Kachnar in most parts of India. Botanically, it is known as Bauhinia variegata (generic name derived from the names of Swiss botanists Jean and Gaspard Bauhin brothers; the specific name refers to the variegation of the flowers) and belongs to the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae). In India, it is reported to occur throughout the country except in high-altitude areas in the Northwest Himalaya. 

Indian Names (Source: Names of Plants in India)

English: Mountain ebony, Orchid tree, Varigated Bauhinia Hindi: kachnal, kachnar   Punjabi: kachnal,  kachnar   Sanskrit: kanchanar,  asphota, atimuktak,  gandari,  kanakantaka,  kanakaraka,  kanchanak, mahapuspa, murva, simhasya, suvarnara, vidal, yugapattar H.P.: Karyaal  Assamese: kanchan   Bengali: raktakanchan   Gujarati: kanchnar   Kannada:  kanchanaara, kanchuvaala, kempu mandaara    Malayalam: konnu, kovidaram, mandaram, unnu    Manipuri: chingthrao   Marathi: kanchan, kanchnar, kovidar,  raktakanchan   Nepali:  koiralo    Oriya: jugapatra,  karaka, kobidara, raktakanchana, sata kumbha, swalpa kesari, tamra pushpa   Pali: kovilara   Tamil: cemmantarai, civappu-mantarai, malai-y-atti, periya-v-atti, peru-mantarai, varai-y-atti, vataraci   Telugu: kanchanamu   Urdu: kachnar

Plant Morphology

Mountain ebony is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree growing to a height of up to 12 m. The leaves are obcordate (camel foot shaped), rounded, and bilobed at the base and tip and measure 10–20 cm in size. Flowers are light or deep pink in colour and measure 8–12 cm in diameter. They have five petals and five fertile stamens. Fruit is a pod that measures up to 30 cm long and 3 cm broad. It contains 10-15 seeds in each pod. When fully ripe and dry, the seedpod starts to twist into a helix or corkscrew shape before finally exploding open with a sound to disperse the seeds.

Beautiful spring bloom

Chemical Constituents

Mostly, flowers, stem and root bark is used a medicine. Flowers contain malvidin-3-diglucoside, cynidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-3-diglucoside, malvidin-3-glucoside, quercitroside, rutoside, isoquercitroside, taxifoline rhamnoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside, myricetrol, octadecanoic acid, apigenin, tannins, etc. The stem bark contains lupeol, kaempferol-3-glucoside, β-isosterol, rhamnopyrosyl-β-D glycopyranoside, stigmasterol, octacosanol, etc. Root bark contains flavanones, dihydrodibenzoxepin, and some other phytochemicals.

USES

 I. EDIBLE USES

Cooked floral buds 

1. Flower buds are cooked as a vegetable. They can also be pickled for later use.

2.   Petals can be used in pakoras, raita and curries.

3.   Tender leaves can be cooked as Saag.

Kachnar Pakodas

(Photograph courtesy: Dr. O.P. Sharma 'Vidyarthi' ji)

 

Mountain ebony pickle

II. MEDICINAL USES

1.  Anti-inflammatory Activity: Mountain ebony is reported to show anti-inflammatory activity and reduces edema.

2.    Hypolipidemic Activity:  The extract of the bark is reported to decrease lipid levels in a rat model.

3.    Anti-diabetic Properties: Mountain ebony is reported to regulate insulin levels in animal models.
4.    Remedy for Hair-Fall: Extract of mountain ebony plant is reported to be useful in controlling hair fall.

Mountain ebony hair serum

5.    Antioxidant: Different scientific studies have shown that different phytochemicals present in mountain ebony make it a potent antioxidant plant.

Cleaned and dried stem bark

6.    Immunomodulatory Activity: Immunomodulatory activity of mountain ebony on the primary and secondary antibody response has been reported.

7.    Anti-Tumour Activity: The aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the bark have shown antitumor activity in animal models. 

8.    Anti-ulcer Activity: Scientific studies using bark extract on rat models have shown anti-ulcer activity. It decreased the acidity and volume of gastric secretion.

9.    Anti-microbial Agent: Leaf extract is shown to inhibit the growth of Pseudomonas spp., E. coli and Klebsiella pneumonia.

10.    Anti-Carcinogenic Properties: The methanolic extract of the stem bark is reported to exhibit anticarcinogenic activity in the mice model. 

11. Increases Haemoglobin: The aqueous and ethanolic extract of the stem bark is reported to increase the haemoglobin content in rats.

 

Mountain ebony bark tea

III. Ornamental Uses

Mountain ebony can be grown as an avenue tree due to its beautiful flowers.

 

Beautiful flowers

IV. As a Fodder

The leaves of this tree are used as fodder for milch cattle.

V. As a Timbre Wood

The wood, which is reddish in colour, can be used for making furniture and other household articles.

A single flower showing its different components

AYURVEDIC PRODUCTS

Kanchnar Gugglu, Pilex, etc.

TOXICITY

There is no scientific report available on the toxicity associated with mountain ebony. Its products have been used by the communities for ages. However, consult a registered medical practitioner before using herbal products.

WHITE TURMERIC: ONE PLANT, MULTIPLE BENEFITS

Rhizomes of white turmeric

Scientifically known as Curcuma zedoaria, white turmeric is a rhizomatous perennial herb from ginger family (Zingiberaceae). Although it is native to Eastern Himalaya, it is widely cultivated in India, China, Indonesia and other Asian and European countries due to its medicinal value. It was introduced to Europe by the Arabs around the sixth century.

NAMES IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES

English: White turmeric, Zedoary, Indian arrowroot, round zedoary; Hindi: Kachoor, Kachura; Sanskrit: Kalpaka, Krachura, Shati, Vedhamukhya; Urdu: Jadwar khatta, Kachoor; Bengali: Sutha, Suthi, Sati; Malayalam: Adavikachholam, Koova; Marathi: Kachura; Tamil: Kastori-manjal, Kichili, Kizhangu, Poolankilangu; Telgu: Kachoeramu, Kachoram, Kichili-gaddalu; Burmese: Thanu-wen; Chinese: E’shu, E’zhu, Yu jin

 

Plants growing in District Hamirpur (H.P.)

PLANT MORPHOLOGY

Flowers develop before the appearance of leaves

White turmeric is a perennial rhizomatous (having rhizomes) herb growing to a height of 120 cm. Many fibrous adventitious roots arise from the rhizomes (underground stem). Rhizome is highly branched, white, or pale in colour, cylindrical and aromatic. Many leaves arise from the rhizomes. The leaves are distichous (arranged alternately in two rows) and long-petioled. They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole and lamina or leaf blade. The leaf sheaths form pseudostems (false stem). The lamina of each leaf is oblong to elliptic and about 60-115 cm in length and 25-45 cm in breadth. Lamina has a prominent midrib. The inflorescence, a spike, arises directly from the rhizome before the emergence or along with emergence of leaves. It measures about 10-18 cm in length. The flowers are pale-yellow, covered by pinkish bracts, bisexual and zygomorphic. Three sepals are white, fused and with unequal calyx teeth. Three petals are bright-yellow and fused to form a corolla tube up to 3 cm long. Out of six stamens, only the median stamen of the inner circle is fertile (5 are converted into staminodes). Carpels are three and fused.

 A freshly uprooted single clump of rhizome

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

The tuberous rhizomes of white turmeric are fleshy, aromatic, white or pale-coloured and bitter and camphoraceous in taste. It contains a considerable number of phytochemicals and the major components isolated from the rhizomes include curzerenone (zedoarone), curdione, curzeone, aerugidiol, epicurcumol, curzerene, pyrocurcuzerenone, curcumin, curcumenol, isocurcuminol, curcumenone, zedoaronediol, furanodienone, isofuranodienone, furanodiene, zederone, comosone II, zerumin A, isoprocurcumenol, curcumanolide A, curcuzedoalide, calcaratarin A, 13-hydroxygermacrone, curcolone, zerumbone epoxide, germacrone, etc.

MEDICINAL USES

White turmeric or Kachoor was extensively used in the traditional healthcare system in India and other Asian countries during medieval times. It is still used for the treatment of sore throat, colds, fever, and indigestion in rural India, especially in the hills. Numerous phytochemicals present in the rhizomes are responsible for their medicinal properties. Some of the medicinal uses are discussed below:

 

Sliced rhizomes for shade drying

1. Cures Sore Throat: The pieces of rhizome can be kept in the mouth for quick relief from throat irritation.

2. For Respiratory Problems: Rhizomes can the boiled and used as a tea for the cure of respiratory diseases such as colds, asthma, and cough.

3. Helps with Digestion: It is widely used to treat indigestion, colic, spasms, loss of appetite, removal of worms, and flatulence.

4. Relieves Inflammation: It has a strong anti-inflammatory activity through inhibition of TNF- α) and NO synthesis. It is also considered to be useful in ulcerative colitis.

5. For Fever: It is considered to be useful in fever.

A farmer from Sirmaur (H.P.) selling kachoor in Shimla

6. Antimicrobial Activity: The rhizome extract has shown potent anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Cornyebacterium spp., Candida sp., Aspergillus sp., etc.

7. Analgesic Property: Curcumenol and dihydrocurdione present in its rhizome have painkiller activity like aspirin.

8. Anti-Allergic Activity: Curcuminoids present in the rhizome exhibit anti-allergic activity by inhibiting the activity of inflammatory proteins and by preventing release of chemicals that initiate allergic reactions.

9. Anti-Tumour and Anti-Cancer Properties: Some studies on cancer cell lines (breast, ovarian and lung) have shown that curcuminoids, curcumin, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin present in white turmeric have anti-tumour and anti-cancer activity.

10. Antioxidant Activity: Essential oils present in the rhizome have free radicals scavenging properties.

Sliced and dried rhizomes for use 

11. Management of Blood Sugar: It is believed that taking 2-3 grams of dried rhizome is useful in maintaining healthy blood sugar levels.

12. Liver Protectant: Phytochemicals such as furanodiene, germacrone, curdione, curcumenol, aerugidiol, zedoarondiol, curcumenone and curcumin are reported to be hepatoprotective.

13. Decreases Alcohol-Induced Drunkenness: Curcumenone increases liver alcohol dehydrogenase activity and decreases the elevation of blood alcohol level.

14. Cholesterol Lowering Property: Clinical studies in Pakistan has shown that consumption of tea prepared by boiling 1.5 g powdered rhizome in 200 ml water for two months lowered the body weight, BMI, LDL, triglycerides, and increased the HDL in moderately hypercholesterolemic patients.

TOXICITY: Not reported in any study.

 

Freshly harvested crop

CULTIVATION

White turmeric is cultivated throughout India. It thrives best in well-drained sandy or clay loam soils with enough organic matter. The land is well prepared during May and brought to a fine tilth by giving three-four ploughings. Well-decomposed farmyard manure or compost can be added during the ploughings or as a basal dressing by spreading over the beds. Planting is done by forming ridges and furrows. The whole or split mother and finger rhizomes are used as planting material. They are planted at a distance of 30-40 cm (about 1.31 ft) from each other either during the pre-monsoons or at the onset of monsoons. The crop becomes ready for harvesting in November when the leaves turn light brown in colour and finally dry. The rhizomatous clumps are carefully lifted with a spade during harvesting. The harvested rhizomes are collected and cleared of all the extraneous matter.